Early Greek Philosophy: Ionian Physics (Natural Philosophy). The Milesians and Heraclitus of Ephesus

The Doctrine of the Cosmic Law

The doctrine of the cosmic law represents the second major idea of Ionian natural philosophers. It asserts that not only does the principle create the world but also rules over it, exercising authority and governance. This idea is directly expressed by the term archê, which denotes authority or rule.

The concept of a governing cosmic principle is most clearly articulated in the thoughts of Anaximander and Heraclitus. They replace the dominion of the gods with a governing principle. Anaximander asserted that the apeiron (the boundless) "rules over all things." It is clear that any form of governance relies on a law, so Anaximander believed that the cosmic cycle of creation and destruction is maintained by retribution for violating this order, similar to the enforcement of laws and penalties. Anaximander’s terminology indicates that he equated natural laws with human laws. For example, the term dikê — "retribution" — also means "penalty" or "fine." As noted by historian K. K. Zelinsky, Anaximander’s concepts of dikê (justice), adikia (injustice), and timê (retribution), when applied to nature, reflect human relationships, suggesting that his doctrine was not an abstraction but a reflection of these relationships.

The application of this law is illustrated in the cyclical order of the seasons, based on the alternation of warmth and cold. Excessive cold and wetness in winter, considered unjust, are punished by a reduction of cold and wetness in summer, when heat and dryness increase, which again is seen as unjust and is met with further retribution, and so on. This regulation maintains the balance, equity of natural forces, and justice in nature. As historian G. Vlastos observed, this "cosmic justice" is a concept of nature as a harmonious association where its members adhere to or are compelled to follow a law of measure.

This "moral" approach to nature suggests a partnership between nature and humanity. The moral-legal evaluation extends not only to the interactions among natural forces but also to the relationship between nature and humanity. This is evident when Solon refers to the sea as the most just, if it, undisturbed by winds, causes no harm to anyone.

Similarly to Anaximander, Heraclitus spoke of the governing function of his principle — fire — and the "law" it imparts to the cosmos. Evidence of Heraclitus’s teachings includes the idea that everything is governed by the peron (lightning), which he identifies with the eternal fire. He describes fire as rational and as the cause of governance over all things. Notably, fire also acts as a judge. One specific manifestation of this governing celestial fire is the Sun, which determines the transitions and seasons.

The law, or logos, which defines the order of cosmic events, is the reason or principle of the original element — fire. This logos pervades the substance of the universe, i.e., fire, and the Sun is described as a rational flame of marine origin.

The law-logos signifies that all occurrences, changes, and transformations must adhere to a certain measure, echoing the ancient maxim "nothing in excess" (μηδὲν ἄγαν). The cosmic fire itself follows this logos, flaring up and extinguishing in measured cycles as it transforms into water, earth, and air. Each of these components might represent a specific measure of fire. The Sun also follows this measure in its movement, which can be understood as the appropriate change of seasons. Violation of this measure is considered injustice, as Anaximander suggested. Hence, Heraclitus, using mythological imagery, attributes the enforcement of this measure to the goddess Dike (Justice), who ensures compliance by sending the Furies (Erinyes) to punish transgressors.

The views of the Milesians and Heraclitus on the material principle and its governing function marked a fundamental shift from mythological perspectives. By removing the divine functions from nature, these views fundamentally altered the understanding of gods, natural phenomena, and humanity.