Renaissance and Extra-University Philosophy

Renaissance as the Revival of Language and Culture

Italy became the epicenter of Renaissance philosophy for several reasons. Firstly, it retained a vivid memory of the former grandeur of the Roman Empire, which was unified not only by political power but also by a common language. During the Middle Ages, powerful states such as Charlemagne’s Empire or the Otto Empire considered themselves direct successors of the Roman Empire, yet they lacked linguistic unity: one language was spoken at court, another in monasteries, and a third in the city. In Italy, however, it was believed that the entire country could be united by the Italian language, developed from local dialects, while the whole Christian world could be united by Latin, purifying it of medieval impurities to make it a language suited for the clear exposition of political facts.

Secondly, Italy boasted a robust educational system, one that not only trained clergy but also influenced politics; the University of Bologna, which grew out of a school of law, provided legal scholars to the papal court.

Thirdly, a powerful merchant class emerged in Italy, dissatisfied with abstract science and inclined toward facts and practical matters. This class sought education to gain a sense of self-worth, taking pride not in noble lineage, as the aristocrats did, but in their own learning.

Fourthly, the very structure of cities was evolving; municipal councils were forming, and a complex relationship between civil and military authority was developing, necessitating an advancement in rhetoric and historical knowledge to prevent the outbreak of new civil wars.

Fifthly, Italy was connected to Byzantium through numerous trade and intellectual ties, and although political relations were often complicated, Greeks traveled to Italy to teach philosophy. These Greek scholars, well-versed in texts, could easily be contrasted with the old scholastics, leading to a reform of universities by replacing outdated professors, who only knew their subject, with universal erudites capable of thinking creatively and expressing themselves eloquently.

Sixthly, the reform of monasticism initiated by Francis of Assisi brought about an artistic renewal, and the constant shifts in visual art prompted the idea that philosophy, too, could be transformed into something entirely different from what it had been before.

The term "humanism" originally signified "the study of human questions," as opposed to theology or physics. Humanists were those who addressed scientific issues related to history and contemporary politics. Today, "humanism" refers to doctrines concerning the godlike nature of humanity, the possibility for humans to become like God or approach an ideal, merging intense contemplation with equally intense activity.

In antiquity, reading silently was not widespread; of course, a professional bureaucrat or lawyer could skim through a text, but such reading did not become a significant cultural phenomenon. Serious texts were read aloud, and even in the absence of an audience, the reader imagined how the text would sound. During the Middle Ages, silent reading became more prevalent: it was necessary to read letters, messages, treatises, and works that were inherently not intended for public recitation.

The biblical world understood a book as something to be studied from beginning to end, much like a course of medicine that must be followed thoroughly. This understanding led to imagery of the book as a scroll that is swallowed, akin to scripture that is sweeter than honey. It is likely that the biblical reverence for books influenced the European tradition of beginning one’s studies on an empty stomach, since “a full belly is deaf to learning.” The biblical comprehension of the book was, to some extent, renewed during the Reformation and the art that followed it.

Consider the Dutch 17th-century still life "Vanitas," dedicated to the transience of all things, which features an open book: it seemingly should not disappear anytime soon, should it? Only wine, bread, and lemon excite the senses, and these excitements fade quickly, whereas a book may indeed temper one's passions and soothe the soul, suggesting it might exist eternally.

During the Renaissance, a new form of reading emerged, such as reading while traveling and the use of pocket books, as illustrated in Carpaccio's painting "The Virgin Mary with a Book" (1510): reading a book becomes mere contemplation. Moreover, the book in Carpaccio’s painting features a bookmark—one can read it, set it aside, and return later. This contrasts sharply with systematic university study, where books are examined line by line!

In an earlier painting by Vittore Carpaccio, depicting Augustine in his study (1502), we see Augustine beginning to write a book immediately after the liturgy: he has placed his liturgical items in a cupboard, not yet having closed it, and is writing before another closed cupboard, likely using books solely for reference, as sources. For Augustine, Carpaccio emphasizes that internal sanctification through the Eucharist is more important than the act of writing; his writing merely attempts to convey the transformation he undergoes within.

This new attitude toward reading as an opportunity for immediate transformation—one that does not merely serve the individual but also sets an example for others—indicates new possibilities for the imagination. In antiquity or the Middle Ages, education favored vivid examples, whether moral paradigms provided by teachers or detailed biographies of virtuous individuals from the past. Now, even cursory reading can instill moral norms in an imaginative reader. Cicero understood culture as the cultivation of the soul through speech, while now culture is the ability to organize one’s library effectively. In this context, Erasmus of Rotterdam (1469—1536) wrote the book "The Armor of the Christian Warrior," akin to a toolbox of instruments that one could carry and utilize as needed.

During the Renaissance, poetry began to be written in columns, as seen in the painting by Agnolo Bronzino "The Poetess Laura Battiferra" (circa 1560). Poems were composed like laws, with the poetess presenting her proud profile as a lawmaker, striving for public recognition in a world that was constantly expanding, where not everyone in the city knew one another, and it became essential to affirm one’s professionalism. Thus, reading became associated with a professional and impersonal judgment, giving rise to a crucial concept for the entire new philosophy: "common sense" as an impersonal understanding of universally accepted truths.