Social Consciousness

The Primary Forms of Social Consciousness

Religious Consciousness

Our exploration of the essence of religious consciousness and the content of the concept that designates this phenomenon will begin with its opposite, that is, the concept of "religious being." In our previous examination of the foundational concepts of religious consciousness, we concluded that religious being should be understood as a term denoting the aggregate of relationships among social subjects, grounded in a specific belief in the existence of both a tangible, earthly, this-worldly realm and an otherworldly, heavenly, supernatural dwelling of higher powers worthy of worship.

As a structural element of social being, religious being significantly influences social consciousness, particularly religious consciousness itself. Being one of the forms of social consciousness, religious consciousness, akin to the previously discussed moral consciousness, possesses all the general characteristics. Simultaneously, it is marked by a number of unique features. In discussing these, researchers highlight the following: reversibility, symbolism, dialogicity, profound intimacy, a complex and contradictory amalgamation of the illusory and the realistic, emotional richness, and an active impact on the volitional state of both individuals and the collective of believers.

However, these characteristics do not exhaust the specificity of religious consciousness; some traits that define it in terms of essence are absent.

First and foremost, it must be noted that religious consciousness is not merely one form of social consciousness. It belongs to the fundamental, integrating forms of social consciousness and, under certain conditions, can determine the nature of other forms of social consciousness. For instance, we can recall that during the medieval period, the absolutization of religious consciousness and the hyperbolization of its essence significantly impacted scientific consciousness as well as political, legal, moral, and philosophical consciousness. Even today, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the religious renaissance we observe has also noticeably influenced these forms of social consciousness.

Secondly, it is essential to recognize that religious consciousness reflects a tendency to preserve the unknown, which serves as the foundation for the mental doubling of the world.

Thirdly, it encapsulates the contradictory relationship of the believing individual to nature, who, on the one hand, acknowledges nature's supremacy over them as the completed creation of higher powers, while on the other, recognizes the necessity of exerting influence upon it to satisfy their needs, thereby altering it.

Fourthly, religious consciousness distinctly reflects the contradictory nature of humanity, perceived both as a superior, perfect creation of the Most High and as a nexus of sinfulness.

Fifthly, it mirrors humanity's aspiration to optimize its relationship with its own mortality, either by removing or, at the very least, diminishing the tragic anticipation of its inevitable arrival.

Lastly, the particularity of religious consciousness ultimately resides in its ability to "overcome" and "resolve" the genuinely significant contradictions (oppositions) of human life and thought in a fantastical manner: the impossible becomes possible, the extraordinary is deemed ordinary, the accidental turns necessary, the faceless transforms into the personal, and the transient becomes eternal; different types of such oppositions emerge and dominate under varying conditions.

From this, we can define religious consciousness as one of the structural components of social consciousness, one of its primary, integrating forms, in which the process of forming subjective images of the world is realized through mental doubling, belief in the supernatural, and the retention, preservation, and transformation of both realistic and illusory information.

Like social consciousness as a whole, religious consciousness is characterized by a multi-layered nature. The primary levels may include everyday religious consciousness and theoretical religious consciousness, as well as religious psychology and religious ideology.

Everyday religious consciousness, representing its socio-psychological level, "is the actively functioning consciousness of the entire mass of believers, encompassing their religious notions, experiences, psychological stereotypes, and behaviors."

For a long time, among Western religious scholars, there existed the notion of a peculiar "religious instinct." For instance, American psychologist J. Coe (1861-1951) asserted that the religious instinct is, to some extent, inherent in every individual as an instinct for the reproduction of the species. Attempts to provide naturalistic explanations of religious psychology persist even today among researchers who maintain idealistic positions. In contrast, representatives of the dialectical-materialist perspective assert that "it has now been proven, both theoretically and experimentally, that any ideas, notions, and beliefs are not inherited genetically, and therefore there is no natural 'religious instinct' or 'religious feeling.'"

Everyday religious consciousness arises from the practical, everyday activities of individuals as an empirical reflection of religious being. Its manifestations include dogmas and postulates as peculiar customs of cognitive activity, as well as myths, proverbs, and sayings that reflect the beliefs of individuals regarding the world, its origins, and their place within it. Examples include: "God is the creator of all," "Without God, even to the threshold," "God sees everything," "Trust in God, but do not be idle," "Only God is without sin, while we are all sinful," and "All power is from God," among others.

Everyday religious consciousness serves as the foundation for folk beliefs, superstitions, and demonology, which were, during the Soviet era, treated with disdain by social scientists. Today, interest in this layer of our culture has noticeably increased, as evidenced by the emergence of serious publications by Ukrainian authors in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.

A higher level of religious consciousness is represented by theoretical religious consciousness, which encompasses elements such as theology and religious philosophy.

Theology is a system developed by certain confessions to justify and defend their dogmas, canons, and liturgical practices. In contemporary theology, various branches exist, including the theology of culture, crisis theology, the theology of the dead God, the theology of hope, liberation theology, process theology, the theology of development, and the theology of earthly realities, among others.

As for religious philosophy, its flourishing corresponds to the medieval period. The ideological orientation of most philosophical systems during the Middle Ages, as is well-known, was dictated by the fundamental dogmas of Christianity, particularly the dogma regarding the personal form of the Creator God, which fundamentally rejected the atomic doctrines of antiquity. During this time, philosophy served theology and was obliged to employ its rational apparatus to support the dogmas of Christianity.

European Catholic philosophers made significant strides in biblical interpretation. In contrast, the achievements of Orthodox thinkers in this regard were much more modest. A thorough interpretation of the Bible was only undertaken by them at the beginning of the 20th century, with a second edition of this work being published just before the millennium of the introduction of Orthodoxy in Rus. Nonetheless, it should be noted that figures like H.S. Skovoroda, along with Russian religious philosophers such as P.D. Yurkevich, S.L. Frank, P.A. Florensky, and others, contributed somewhat to the philosophical analysis of biblical tenets. This work continues even today.

Presently, modern religious philosophy maintains strong positions in various European countries. The most prevalent current within Catholic philosophy is neo-Thomism, which is grounded in the teachings of Thomas Aquinas.

Alongside everyday religious consciousness exists religious psychology, which encompasses the moods, thoughts, feelings, and value orientations present within the religious process. Distinct from real feelings regarding objects of experience, religious feelings can be psychologically negative (such as religious fear, confusion, shock, etc.) or positive (including religious love, reverence, joy, etc.).

At the highest level of religious consciousness lies religious ideology. Closely linked with religious psychology, it represents a distinct type of religious consciousness—religious practical consciousness. Religious ideology emerges as a collection of theoretically grounded religious ideas and views that believers perceive as correct and necessary, serving as a guide in their practical activities.

An important structural element of religious consciousness is religious self-awareness—a specific characteristic of an individual or social group, manifested in their identification within religious being, the evaluation of themselves, and their capabilities as subjects of the religious process.