Catholic Philosophy

The Fathers of the Church

The Religious Development of the Jews

The Christian religion, as it was transmitted to the barbarians by the late Roman Empire, comprised three fundamental elements: first, certain philosophical views primarily derived from the teachings of Plato and the Neoplatonists, with some influence from the Stoics; second, moral and historical concepts borrowed from the Jews; and third, several theories (notably the theory of salvation) that were largely innovations of Christianity, though some may be traced back to Orphism and related Near Eastern cults.

The most significant Jewish elements in Christianity appear to be as follows:

1. Sacred History: This history begins with the creation of the world and leads to an impending end, justifying the ways of the Lord to humanity.
2. Faith in a Chosen Remnant: There exists a belief in a small part of humankind that is particularly beloved by God. For the Jews, this was the chosen people; for Christians, it was the elect.
3. A New Concept of Righteousness: From late Judaism, Christianity inherited notions such as the virtue of almsgiving. While the importance of baptism may have been derived from Orphism or Eastern pagan mystical religions, the practical philanthropy integral to the Christian concept of virtue appears to have been borrowed from the Jews.
4. The Law: Christians retained aspects of the ancient Jewish law, such as the Ten Commandments, while simultaneously rejecting its ceremonial and ritual components. Nonetheless, in practice, the symbol of faith played a role in their hearts similar to that of the law in the hearts of the Jews. This led to the doctrine that true faith is at least as important as virtuous deeds—a doctrine that is essentially Hellenistic. The idea of the religious exclusivity of the chosen was of Jewish origin.
5. The Messiah: According to Jewish belief, the Messiah would bring them temporal prosperity and victory over their enemies here on earth; moreover, He remained in the future. For Christians, the Messiah was the historical Jesus, identified also with the Logos of Greek philosophy; the triumph over enemies that the Messiah would secure for His followers would occur not on earth, but in heaven.
6. The Kingdom of Heaven: The concept of another world is shared by both Jews and Christians in a certain sense with late Platonism, but in their interpretations, it assumes a much more concrete form than in Greek philosophy. According to the Greek doctrine (which can be found in many works of Christian philosophy but is not widely prevalent in Christianity itself), the sensory world existing in space and time is an illusion; through intellectual and moral discipline, a person can learn to live in the eternal world—the only truly real one. In contrast, in Jewish and Christian doctrines, the other world was not conceived as something metaphysically distinct from this world but rather as a future where the virtuous would enjoy eternal bliss while the wicked would suffer eternal torment. This belief embodied a psychology of vengeance, easily comprehensible to all, unlike the doctrines of the Greek philosophers, which were not universally understood.

To comprehend the origins of these ideas, we must examine certain facts from Jewish history, to which we shall now turn our attention.

The earliest history of the Israelites cannot be confirmed by any sources apart from the Old Testament, making it impossible to ascertain at which point it ceases to be purely legendary. David and Solomon may be regarded as kings who possibly existed in reality, but the earliest moment at which we encounter any reasonably credible historical facts is when the two kingdoms—Israel and Judah—already existed. The first individual mentioned in the Old Testament about whom there is independent written evidence is Ahab, the king of Israel; he is referenced in an Assyrian letter dated to 853 BCE. The Assyrians ultimately conquered the northern kingdom in 722 BCE and deported a significant portion of its population. From that time onward, the Kingdom of Judah became the sole guardian of Israelite religion and tradition. It outlasted Assyria, which came to an end with the capture of Nineveh by the Babylonians and Medes in 606 BCE. However, in 586 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem, destroyed the temple, and exiled a significant part of the population to Babylon. The Babylonian kingdom fell in 538 BCE when Babylon was taken by Cyrus, king of the Medes and Persians. In 537 BCE, Cyrus promulgated a decree allowing the Jews to return to Palestine. Many Jews (led by Nehemiah and Ezra) returned; the temple was rebuilt, and from this point, the crystallization of Jewish orthodoxy began.

During the period of exile, as well as for some time before and after it, Jewish religion underwent several significant changes. Initially, the Israelites and the surrounding tribes seemingly shared little distinction in their religious practices. Yahweh was worshiped at first merely as a tribal god, a protector of the children of Israel, while the existence of other gods was not denied, and their veneration was a common practice. When the first commandment states, “You shall have no other gods before Me,” it expresses something entirely new for the time immediately preceding the exile. This is clearly evidenced in various texts from the early prophets. It was during this time that the prophets first began to teach that the worship of pagan gods was a sin. They argued that to achieve victory in the numerous wars of the time, one must seek the patronage of Yahweh; and Yahweh would withdraw His protection from the Jews if they honored other gods. The principal architects of the idea that all religions, except one, are false, and that the Lord punishes idolatry, were, it seems, Jeremiah and Ezekiel.

Several quotations will serve to illustrate their teachings and show the prevalence of the pagan customs that provoked their protests. “Do you not see what they are doing in the cities of Judah and in the streets of Jerusalem? The children gather wood, and the fathers light the fire, and the women knead dough to make cakes for the queen of heaven [Ishtar] and to pour out drink offerings to other gods, to provoke Me” This angers the Lord. “And they built the high places of Tophet in the valley of the sons of Hinnom, to burn their sons and their daughters in the fire, which I did not command, and it did not come into My heart.”

In the book of the prophet Jeremiah, there is a particularly interesting passage where he condemns the idolatry of the Jews residing in “the land of Egypt.” He himself lived among them for some time. The prophet threatens the Jewish fugitives in “the land of Egypt” that Yahweh will destroy them all, for their wives are burning incense to other gods. Yet they refuse to listen to him, saying, “But we will certainly do everything that has gone out of our mouths, to burn incense to the queen of heaven and to pour out drink offerings to her, as we did, we and our fathers, our kings and our princes, in the cities of Judah and in the streets of Jerusalem; for then we had plenty of food and were well off and saw no trouble.” But Jeremiah assures them that Yahweh has seen this idolatry, for which misfortunes have befallen the Jews. “Behold, I have sworn by My great name, says the Lord, that no more shall My name be invoked by the mouth of any man of Judah in all the land of Egypt… Behold, I will watch over you for harm, and not for good; and all the men of Judah who are in the land of Egypt shall be consumed by the sword and by famine, until there is an end of them.”

The prophet Ezekiel hurls thunderbolts and lightning against the idolatry of the Jews. In visions, the Lord reveals to him women sitting at the northern gate of the temple, weeping for Tammuz (the Babylonian deity); then He shows him "great abominations"—twenty-five men standing at the temple doors, worshiping the sun. The Lord proclaims: "For this, I will act in fury: My eye will not spare, nor will I have pity; and even if they cry in My ears with a loud voice, I will not hear them."

Clearly, these prophets were the architects of the idea that all religions, except one, are wicked and that the Lord punishes idolatry. All the prophets were fervent nationalists, anticipating the day when the Lord would annihilate all the pagans.

The captivity was interpreted by the prophets as a confirmation of the justice of their denunciations. For if Yahweh is omnipotent and the Jews are His chosen people, what else could explain the misfortunes that befell them, if not their own wickedness? The psychology is akin to that of paternal punishment: the Jews, in order to purify themselves, must endure punishment. Under the influence of this perspective, the orthodoxy developed by the Jews in exile took on a far more irreconcilable and nationally exclusive character than that which prevailed during their period of independent existence. Jews who remained in their homeland and were not exiled to Babylon did not experience such development, even in a diminished form. When Ezra and Nehemiah returned from the exile to Jerusalem, they were outraged to find a widespread prevalence of mixed marriages and annulled all such unions.

What distinguished the Jews from other ancient peoples was their unwavering national pride. Other nations, when conquered, submitted both internally and externally; only the Jews retained their faith in their own superiority and the conviction that the calamities that befell them were invoked by God's wrath, because they failed to maintain the purity of their faith and rituals. The historical books of the Old Testament, compiled primarily after the exile, create a deceptive impression that the idolatrous practices that provoked the prophets’ protests were a departure from an ancient strictness, whereas in reality, such strictness never existed. The prophets were innovators to a far greater degree than may seem from the Bible, when read unhistorically.

Some elements that would later characterize the Jewish religion developed during the period of exile, although partially from previously existing sources. Since the temple—the only place where sacrifices could be made—was destroyed, Jewish ritual necessarily lost its sacrificial features. During the exile, the first synagogues appeared, where those parts of the Holy Scriptures that existed at that time were read. It was then that particular importance began to be placed on the Sabbath and on circumcision as a distinguishing mark of a Jew. As we have already seen, it was only during the period of exile that marriages between Jews and gentiles were prohibited. Various forms of religious exclusivity multiplied: "I am the Lord, your God, who has separated you from all nations." "You shall be holy, for I am holy, the Lord your God." The product of this period is the law, which became one of the main forces intended to preserve national unity.

What has come down to us as the Book of the Prophet Isaiah is the work of two different prophets, one of whom lived before the exile, while the other lived after. The latter, whom biblical scholars refer to as Second Isaiah, was the most remarkable of the prophets. From him, we first encounter the declaration of the Lord: "There is no God besides Me." He believed in the resurrection of the body, which may be attributed to Persian influence. His prophecies concerning the Messiah later served as key texts from the Old Testament, cited as evidence that the prophets foresaw the coming of Christ.

These texts from Second Isaiah played a significant role in Christian polemics against both pagans and Jews, which is why I shall present the most important of them. Ultimately, all nations will be converted: "They shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruning hooks; nation shall not lift up sword against nation, neither shall they learn war anymore." "Behold, a virgin shall conceive and bear a Son, and shall call His name: Emmanuel." (This text sparked controversy between Jews and Christians; the Jews argued for the correct translation: "a young woman shall conceive," while Christians maintained that the Jews were lying.) "The people who walked in darkness have seen a great light; those who dwelt in the land of the shadow of death, upon them a light has shone... For unto us a Child is born; unto us a Son is given; and the government will be upon His shoulder, and His name will be called: Wonderful, Counselor, Mighty God, Everlasting Father, Prince of Peace." The prophetic characteristics are most evident in Chapter 53, which contains the well-known texts: "He was despised and rejected by men, a Man of sorrows and acquainted with grief... Yet He bore our infirmities and carried our sorrows... He was wounded for our transgressions, He was bruised for our iniquities; the chastisement for our peace was upon Him, and by His stripes, we are healed... He was oppressed, and He was afflicted, yet He opened not His mouth; He was led as a lamb to the slaughter, and as a sheep before its shearers is silent, so He opened not His mouth." It is made abundantly clear that the pagans will be included in the ultimate salvation: "And nations shall come to your light, and kings to the brightness of your rising."

After Ezra and Nehemiah, the Jews vanish from the historical stage for a time. The Jewish state continued to exist in the form of a theocracy, but its territory shrank to a minuscule size; according to E. Biven, it encompassed an area of 10 miles by 15 around Jerusalem. After Alexander, this territory became a bone of contention between the Ptolemies and the Seleucids. However, clashes between them rarely occurred on Jewish territory, and for a long time, the Jews were able to practice their religion freely.

The moral code of the Jews during this time is outlined in the Book of Ecclesiastes, likely written around 200 B.C. Until very recently, it was known only in its Greek version, which led to its classification as an apocryphal book. However, a Hebrew manuscript was recently discovered, which differs in certain respects from the Greek text translated into our edition of apocryphal books. The moral presented is decidedly secular in nature. Good reputation among peers is highly valued. The best behavior is characterized by honesty, for it is beneficial to have Yahweh on one’s side. Generosity is recommended. Medicine is praised, marking the only aspect that betrays Greek influence.

One need not show excessive kindness to slaves: "Food, a stick, and a burden are for the donkey; bread, beating, and labor are for the servant... Make him work; it will be to his benefit; and if he does not obey, put heavier chains on him." At the same time, remember that the slave cost you money, which will be lost if he escapes; therefore, severity is only useful to a certain extent. Daughters serve as a significant source of worry; evidently, in the times of Ecclesiastes, they behaved quite recklessly. Overall, he holds women in low esteem: "Where there is clothing, there is moth; where there is a woman, there is sin." One is mistaken to rejoice in one’s children; the right path is "to bend their necks from a young age."

In general, like Cato the Elder, Ecclesiastes presents the morality of a virtuous businessman in a rather unappealing light.

The tranquil existence of self-reliance rooted in righteousness that the Jews led was abruptly disrupted by the Seleucid king Antiochus IV, who aimed to Hellenize all his dominions. In 175 BCE, he established a gymnasium in Jerusalem, teaching the youth to don Greek hats and engage in athletic pursuits. A Hellenized Jew named Jason, whom Antiochus appointed as high priest, assisted him in this endeavor. The priestly aristocracy became unstable, succumbing to the allure of Greek civilization; yet, it faced fierce opposition from the Hasidim, meaning "the Holy Ones," whose influence was strong among the rural populace.

In 170 BCE, when Antiochus found himself embroiled in war with Egypt, the Jews revolted. In retaliation, Antiochus seized the sacred vessels from the temple and placed an image of God within it, equating Yahweh with Zeus, a tactic that had met with success elsewhere. He sought to eradicate the Jewish religion, abolish circumcision, and nullify the dietary laws. Jerusalem acquiesced to all this, but outside its walls, the Jews resisted with fierce determination.

The history of this period is chronicled in the first book of the Maccabees. The opening chapter recounts how Antiochus decreed that all inhabitants of his kingdom should become one people and abandon their distinct laws. All the pagans complied, and many among the Israelites did so as well, despite the king's orders that they profane the Sabbath, sacrifice swine, and leave their sons uncircumcised. Those who refused to heed the king's word faced death. Nevertheless, many did not submit. "They, under the decree, killed the wives who had circumcised their children. Infants were hanged by their necks, their houses were plundered, and those who performed circumcision were killed. Yet many in Israel remained steadfast and strengthened themselves not to eat the unclean. They chose to die rather than be defiled by food and to profane the holy covenant—and they died."

It was during this time that the belief in immortality gained widespread acceptance among the Jews. Previously, it was thought that virtue would be rewarded in this life; however, the persecutions faced by the most virtuous individuals convinced many of the contrary. Thus, to preserve faith in divine justice, it became necessary to believe in a forthcoming reward and punishment. This doctrine was not universally accepted among the Jews; by the time of Christ, the Sadducees still rejected it. Yet by this time, they constituted a dwindling faction, and later, all Jews came to believe in immortality.

The revolt against Antiochus was led by Judah Maccabee, a talented military commander who first liberated Jerusalem in 164 BCE and then went on the offensive. In some cities, he executed all the men, while in others, he compelled them to undergo circumcision. His brother Jonathan, appointed high priest, established himself in Jerusalem with an armed force and conquered part of Samaria, annexing Joppa and Acre to Judea. He negotiated with Rome, achieving recognition of Judea's full autonomy. The house of Jonathan, known as the Hasmonean dynasty, held the high priestly office until the time of Herod.

The Jews of this era endured persecution and resisted with genuine heroism, although this heroism was directed toward a cause that does not seem particularly significant to us, such as circumcision and the acknowledgment of the consumption of pork as impious.

The period of persecution under Antiochus IV was critical in Jewish history. By this time, Jews in the diaspora were becoming increasingly Hellenized; the Jews who remained in Judea were a small handful, and even among them, the wealthy and ruling elite tended toward the adoption of Greek innovations. Had it not been for the heroic resistance of the Hasidim, the Jewish religion could have easily perished. Had this occurred, there would have been neither Christianity nor Islam as we know them today. Townsend writes in the introduction to his translation of the fourth book of the Maccabees: "It has been aptly noted that if Judaism as a religion had perished under Antiochus, the soil from which Christianity grew would have vanished; thus, the blood spilled by the Maccabean martyrs, who saved Judaism, ultimately became the seed from which the Church grew. And since monotheism not only in Christianity but also in Islam derives from a Jewish source, it is fully justifiable to assert that the very existence of monotheism today, both in the East and the West, owes much to the Maccabees."

However, the Maccabees themselves did not enjoy the favor of later Jews, for their lineage, having gained the high priestly office, began to pursue a worldly and accommodating policy after their initial successes. Admiration was paid only to the martyrs. All of this, along with other interesting details, is illustrated in the fourth book of the Maccabees, likely written in Alexandria shortly before the time of Christ. Despite its title, it does not mention the Maccabees even once; its theme revolves around the extraordinary courage exhibited by an old man, and in another account, by seven young brothers whom Antiochus tortured and then burned alive in the presence of their mother, who pleaded with them to remain steadfast to the end. Initially, Antiochus attempted to persuade the brothers with kindness, assuring them that if they would agree to eat swine, he would bestow upon them his favors and secure a bright future. When they refused, he displayed the instruments of torture. Yet even then, they remained unyielding, declaring to Antiochus that after his death, he would face eternal torment, while they would receive eternal bliss as their reward. One by one, in the presence of each other and their mother, they were first urged to eat swine and then, when they steadfastly refused, they were tortured and executed. The account concludes with the king addressing his soldiers, expressing hope that such an example of courage would benefit them. The narrative, of course, is embellished with legend, but historical facts confirm that the persecutions were brutal and that they were endured heroically; it is also affirmed that the main issues over which the struggle was waged were circumcision and the consumption of pork.

This book is interesting in another respect as well. Although the author was undoubtedly an orthodox Jew, he employs the language of Stoic philosophy and aims to demonstrate that the Jews live in complete harmony with its teachings. The book opens with the phrase: "One of the profoundest philosophical problems is the question I propose to discuss, namely: Is the inspired intellect the supreme ruler of our passions? And I implore you to dedicate your fervent attention to this philosophical issue."

The Alexandrian Jews sought to learn philosophy from the Greeks, yet at the same time, they adhered with remarkable steadfastness to the law, especially concerning circumcision, observance of the Sabbath, and abstention from swine and other unclean foods. The further one moves from the time of Nehemiah to the period following the fall of Jerusalem in 70 CE, the more the law gained significance in their eyes. They no longer tolerated among them prophets wishing to proclaim something new. Consequently, for those Alexandrian Jews who felt the need to write in the style of prophets, it became necessary to pretend that they had discovered some ancient book—by Daniel, Solomon, or some other infallible authority from antiquity. The ritualistic peculiarities of the Alexandrian Jews united them as a people, but the demand for strict adherence to the law gradually extinguished all originality and rendered them exceedingly conservative. This rigorism imbues St. Paul's rebellion against the dominion of the law with particular significance.

And yet, the New Testament is not such a wholly new undertaking as it may seem to those entirely unacquainted with the Jewish literature of the time immediately preceding Christ's birth. The prophetic zeal had by no means waned; rather, it had resorted to the stratagems of pseudonymity to be heard. From this perspective, the Book of Enoch holds great interest—a work composed of writings by various authors, the earliest of which was penned shortly before the Maccabean era, and the latest around 64 B.C.E. Much of the book is framed as a narrative of the apocalyptic visions of the patriarch Enoch. It is crucial for characterizing those elements in Judaism that transitioned into Christianity. The New Testament writers were well-acquainted with this text; St. Jude even asserts that it was indeed written by Enoch. Early Christian Church Fathers, such as Clement of Alexandria and Tertullian, considered it among the canonical books, though it was rejected by Jerome and Augustine. Ultimately, the book fell into obscurity and was lost until three manuscript copies in the Ethiopian language were discovered in Abyssinia in the early 19th century. Subsequent findings also unearthed manuscript fragments of Greek and Latin versions of the text. It was originally composed, it seems, partially in ancient Hebrew and partially in Aramaic. The authors belonged to the faction of the Hasidim and its successors, the Pharisees. They condemned kings and princes, particularly targeting the Hasmonean dynasty and the Sadducees. The book significantly influenced the formation of New Testament doctrine, especially regarding the Messiah, Sheol (hell), and demonology.

The text is primarily composed of "parables" that possess an even more cosmic quality than the parables of the New Testament. Before the reader unfolds the first two books of "Paradise Lost," where similar imagery is rendered in a more refined literary form, and the "Prophetic Books" of Blake, which display lesser literary merit.

A curious passage elaborates on the themes found in Genesis 6 (verses 2, 4), profoundly Promethean in spirit. Angels taught humanity metallurgy and were punished for revealing "eternal secrets." They were also cannibals. The fallen angels were transformed into pagan gods, while their women became sirens; ultimately, their punishment was eternal torment.

The descriptions of heaven and hell exhibit considerable literary merit. The Last Judgment is executed by "the Son of Man, in whom righteousness is embodied," seated upon the throne of His glory. At the final moment, some of the Gentiles will repent and obtain forgiveness; yet, the majority, along with all Hellenized Jews, will be consigned to eternal damnation, for the righteous will cry out for vengeance, and their pleas will be heeded.

A special section is devoted to astronomy, revealing that the Sun and Moon have chariots driven by the wind, that the year consists of 364 days, that human sins cause celestial bodies to deviate from their courses, and that only the virtuous are granted the knowledge of astronomy. Falling stars are the fallen angels, punished by seven archangels.

Following astronomy, Sacred History unfolds. Prior to the Maccabees, it reiterates what is known about the early period from the Bible, and about later periods from history. The author then transitions to the coming times: the New Jerusalem, the conversion of the remaining Gentiles, the resurrection of the righteous, and the Messiah.

A significant theme occupies the narrative: the punishment of sinners and the reward of the righteous; the latter never exhibit Christian forgiveness towards sinners. "What will you do, you sinners, and where will you hide on that Judgment Day when the voice of the praying righteous reaches your ears?" "Sin was not sent upon the earth; it was created by man himself." Sins are recorded in heaven. "And you, sinners, will be cursed for eternity, and there will be no peace for you." Sinners may live happily throughout their lives; happiness may not abandon them even at the moment of death, yet their souls will still descend into Sheol, where their fate will be "darkness, chains, and fiery flames." The righteous shall not suffer the same fate: "I and my Son will forever be united with them."

The book concludes with these words: "To the faithful, He will grant faithfulness in the abode of righteous paths. And they will see how those born in darkness are dragged into darkness while the righteous shine forth. And the sinners will cry out upon seeing their radiance, and they will not escape the fate prescribed for them."

Jews, much like Christians, reflected deeply upon sin, yet few among them regarded themselves as sinners. This perception was largely an innovation of Christianity, first articulated in the parable of the Pharisee and the tax collector and presented as a virtue in Christ's condemnation of the scribes and Pharisees. Christians endeavored to embody Christian humility; Jews, in general, did not follow this path.

However, among orthodox Jews in the period immediately preceding Christ's time, there were significant exceptions. Consider, for example, the "Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs"; these were written between 109 and 107 B.C.E. by a Pharisee whose sympathies lay with John Hyrcanus, the high priest from the Hasmonean dynasty. The book, in the form it has reached us, contains Christian interpolations, yet these pertain solely to doctrine. Excluding them reveals that the ethical instructions within exhibit a remarkable similarity to the ethical teachings of the gospels. As the esteemed Dr. R. H. Charles states, "The Sermon on the Mount reflects the spirit and even reproduces individual phrases from our text in several places; its influence can be traced throughout many passages in the gospels; St. Paul evidently drew generously from this book." Among the teachings imparted in the text, we find the following:

"Love one another with all your heart; and if anyone sins against you, speak to him with words of peace and harbor no malice in your soul; and if he comes to regret this and repents, forgive him. But if he does not acknowledge his sin, do not become angry with him; otherwise, he will take on your infection and respond with blasphemies, thus sinning doubly... And if, losing all shame, he persists in sin, even then forgive him from all your heart and leave vengeance to God."

Dr. Charles believes that Christ must have been familiar with this passage. Furthermore, we encounter:

"Love the Lord and your neighbor."

"Love the Lord your entire life and one another from a pure heart."

"I have loved the Lord; and likewise all people with all my heart."

One might draw a comparison with the Gospel of Matthew (22:37—39). The "Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs" condemn all forms of hatred, stating:

"Anger is blindness, preventing a man from seeing another's face in its true light."

"Therefore, hatred is evil; for it always dwells alongside lies."

As one would expect, the author of the book believes that not only Jews but all Gentiles will attain salvation.

Христиане заимствовали из евангелий недоброжелательное отношение к фарисеям; и все‑таки автор книги, сам фарисей, преподавал, как мы видели, те же самые этические наставления, которые мы считаем наиболее характерными для проповедей Христа. Однако объяснить это противоречие совсем нетрудно. Во‑первых, даже для своего времени автор книги должен был составлять исключение среди фарисеев; более распространенной, несомненно, была доктрина, выраженная в книге Еноха. Во‑вторых, мы знаем, что всем движениям присуща тенденция к окостенению; разве можно распознать принципы Джефферсона в принципах “Дочерей американской революции”? В‑третьих, мы знаем, что именно у фарисеев слепая приверженность закону как абсолютной и последней истине вскоре уничтожила всякие свежие и живые мысли и чувства. Предоставим вновь слово д‑ру Чарлзу:

“Когда фарисейство, разорвав со старыми идеалами своей партии, погрязло в тине политических интересов и движений и вместе с тем все полнее и полнее подчиняло себя букве закона, в нем вскоре не оказалось места для развития столь же возвышенной системы этики, как та, которая развернута в “Завещаниях” (патриархов), и в результате истинные наследники ранних хасидов и их учения оставили иудаизм и нашли свое естественное прибежище в лоне первоначального христианства”.

После того как период правления первосвященников кончился, Марк Антоний поставил царем евреев своего друга Ирода. Ирод был беспутным авантюристом, часто оказывавшимся на грани банкротства; ему, привыкшему к римскому обществу, было совершенно чуждо еврейское благочестие. Жена его принадлежала к роду первосвященников, но сам он был идумеянином, чего одного было достаточно, чтобы сделать его личность подозрительной в глазах евреев. Ирод был искусным приспособленцем и сразу же покинул Антония, как только стало очевидно, что чаша весов победы склоняется на сторону Октавиана. Тем не менее он изо всех сил старался примирить евреев со своим правлением. Он перестроил храм, правда в эллинистическом стиле, с рядами коринфских колонн; но над главными воротами он водрузил огромного золотого орла, что было явным прегрешением против второй заповеди. Когда распространился слух, что Ирод при смерти, фарисеи низвергли орла; но Ирод в отместку приказал казнить нескольких фарисеев. Ирод умер в 4 году до н. э., и вскоре после его смерти римляне уничтожили независимость царства, поставив Иудею под власть прокуратора. Понтий Пилат, ставший прокуратором в 26 году н. э., вел себя вызывающе и вскоре был отрешен от должности.

В 66 году н. э. евреи, предводительствуемые партией Зилотов, восстали против Рима. Они потерпели поражение, Иерусалим пал в 70 году н. э. Храм был разрушен, в Иудее мало осталось евреев.

Что же касается евреев диаспоры, то уже за несколько веков до этого времени они приобрели важное значение. Первоначально евреи были почти исключительно сельскохозяйственным народом; но в период пленения они переняли у вавилонян торговлю. Многие евреи остались в Вавилоне и после времен Ездры и Неемии, и некоторые из них были крупными богачами. После основания Александрии многие евреи поселились в этом городе; им был отведен особый квартал, не в виде гетто, а чтобы им не угрожало осквернение от соприкосновения с язычниками. Александрийские евреи подверглись эллинизации в гораздо большей степени, чем их соплеменники в Иудее, и даже забыли древнееврейский язык. По этой причине пришлось перевести Ветхий Завет на греческий язык; так возник “Перевод семидесяти толковников”. Пятикнижие было переведено в середине III столетия до н. э., другие части — несколько позднее.

Вокруг “Перевода семидесяти толковников” (названного так потому, что над ним трудились 70 переводчиков) сложились настоящие легенды. Говорили, что каждый из 70 переводчиков самостоятельно перевел всю Библию, но когда все редакции сличили, то оказалось, что они совпадают до мельчайших подробностей, ибо были внушены Богом. Тем не менее позднейшие научные исследования показали, что “Перевод семидесяти толковников” был выполнен совершенно неудовлетворительно. С начала распространения христианства евреи лишь изредка пользовались “Переводом семидесяти толковников”, вернувшись к чтению древнееврейского текста Ветхого Завета. Напротив, ранние христиане, среди которых знание древнееврейского языка было редкостью, обращались к “Переводу семидесяти толковников” или переводам с него на латинский язык. Лучшим из последних был перевод Оригена, выполненный в III столетии, но все же те христиане, которые не знали иных языков, кроме латинского, вынуждены были пользоваться весьма не совершенными редакциями, пока Иероним не создал в V веке Вульгату. На первых порах ее встретили в штыки, ибо в установлении точного текста при переводе Иероним обращался за помощью к евреям, а многие христиане подозревали евреев в сознательном искажении пророков с целью вытравить из них те места, в которых они предсказали пришествие Христа. Постепенно, однако, перевод св. Иеронима получил всеобщее признание, и он остается по сей день официальным в католической церкви.

Греческое влияние на евреев в области мысли лучше всего может быть проиллюстрировано примером философа Филона, жившего в одно время с Христом. Вполне ортодоксальный в вопросах религии, Филон в философии следует главным образом платонизму; из других важных влияний надо отметить стоиков и неопифагорейцев. После падения Иерусалима влиянию Филона среди евреев пришел конец, но христианские отцы церкви усмотрели в его учении путь к примирению греческой философии с принятием древнееврейского Священного Писания.

Во всех важных городах античности возникли значительные колонии евреев; евреи оказывали наряду с представителями других восточных религий влияние на те элементы, которые не желали довольствоваться скептицизмом или официальными религиями Греции и Рима. Иудаизм завоевал много новообращенных, причем не только в империи, но даже в Южной России. Вероятно, именно в еврейских и полуеврейских кругах и появились первые приверженцы христианства. Однако сам ортодоксальный иудаизм после падения Иерусалима стал еще более ортодоксальным и ограниченным, как это уже было после первого завоевания Иерусалима, осуществленного Навуходоносором. После I века выкристаллизовалось и христианство, и отношения между иудаизмом и христианством приобрели исключительно враждебный и внешний характер; как мы увидим, христианство усиленно поощряло антисемитизм. В течение всего Средневековья евреи не участвовали в культурной жизни христианских стран; их преследовали с такой беспощадностью, что они были лишены возможности вносить какой‑либо вклад в цивилизацию, помимо денег, которые шли на постройку соборов и подобные предприятия. Только среди мусульман евреи встретили в этот период гуманное отношение и получили возможность заниматься философией и просвещенными теориями.

В эпоху Средневековья мусульмане были более цивилизованными и гуманными, чем христиане. Христиане преследовали евреев, особенно во времена религиозного возбуждения: крестовые походы были связаны с ужасными погромами. Наоборот, в мусульманских странах евреи почти никогда не встречали дурного обращения. Здесь они внесли существенный вклад в развитие науки, особенно в мавританской Испании; в учении Маймонида (1135—1204), который родился в Кордове, некоторые усматривают источник многих положений философии Спинозы. Когда христиане отвоевали Испанию, они познакомились с наукой мавров — в значительной степени через посредство евреев. Образованные евреи, владевшие древнееврейским, греческим и арабским языками и знакомые с философией Аристотеля, передали свои познания менее образованным схоластам. Передали они и менее желательные вещи, такие как алхимия и астрология.

После Средневековья евреи продолжали вносить значительный вклад в цивилизацию, но уже не как раса, а только как отдельные личности.