Scholastics

The Twelfth Century

Conflict Between the Empire and the Papacy

From the time of Gregory VII until the mid-thirteenth century, the central event around which European history revolved was the struggle between the church and secular monarchs, primarily with the emperor, but occasionally with the kings of France and England. Gregory's papacy concluded in clear catastrophe; however, his policies, albeit implemented with greater moderation, were revived by Urban II (1088—1099), who reissued decrees against secular investiture and sought to ensure that bishops were freely elected by the clergy and the populace. (The participation of the populace, of course, was intended to be a mere formality.) Nevertheless, in practice, he did not contest secular appointments if the selections were made in favor of worthy individuals.

In the early years of his papacy, Urban II felt secure only within the territories occupied by the Normans. However, in 1093, Conrad, the son of Henry IV, rebelled against his father and, in alliance with the pope, conquered Northern Italy, where the Lombard League (a confederation of cities led by Milan) supported the papacy. In 1094, Urban II made a triumphant tour through Northern Italy and France. He triumphed over Philip, the King of France, who demanded a divorce and was excommunicated by the pope, after which he submitted. At the Council of Clermont in 1095, Urban proclaimed the First Crusade, which ignited a wave of religious fervor that resulted in an increase in papal authority and horrifying pogroms against the Jews. Urban II spent the last year of his life safely in Rome, a place where popes rarely felt secure.

The next pope, Pascal II, like Urban II, hailed from Cluny. He continued the struggle for investiture and achieved success in France and England. However, after the death of Henry IV in 1106, the new emperor, Henry V, triumphed over the pope, who was an otherworldly figure, allowing his sanctity to override political prudence. The pope proposed that the emperor renounce his right to investiture in exchange for bishops and abbots relinquishing their secular possessions. The emperor feigned agreement; however, when the proposed compromise was made public, the clergy erupted in fury and rebelled against the pope. The emperor, present in Rome, seized the opportunity to capture the pope, who, succumbing to threats, renounced the right to investiture and crowned Henry V. Yet, eleven years later, through the Concordat of Worms, concluded in 1122, Pope Callistus II compelled Henry V to renounce his right to investiture as well as control over the elections of bishops in Burgundy and Italy.

Thus, the ultimate outcome of the struggle resulted in the pope, previously dependent on Henry III, attaining parity with the emperor. At the same time, he became an even more absolute ruler of the church, which he governed through legates. The strengthening of papal authority correspondingly diminished the role of bishops. Papal elections were liberated from secular control, and clergy, in general, began to lead a more virtuous life than they had prior to the reform movement.