The Formation of Christian Philosophy in Apologetics

The early Christian writers of the second half of the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, known as apologists, crafted defensive speeches (Greek: apologia) to justify Christian beliefs and way of life before Roman authorities and even emperors. Among the most significant apologists whose works have survived are Aristides, Justin, Tatian, Athenagoras, Theophilus, and Hermias. Their writings offer foundational ideas for both Christian philosophy and the history of Christian philosophy.

As Christian philosophers, the apologists presented several key aspects of their religious-philosophical worldview. Let’s begin with their understanding of God, the foundational category of any religious philosophy. Aristides, with his "Apology (On the Worship of the Almighty God)," considered the first book in this series, lays the groundwork for apophatic (negative) theology. He argues that discussing God as He is is futile since His Essence is infinite and incomprehensible to all creatures. Aristides states that within permissible bounds, one should understand God as ungenerated, uncreated, without beginning, infinite, immortal, perfect, and incomprehensible. He denies God any name, gender, or other attributes of created beings, thus describing God through negation. This approach leads to philosophical agnosticism. Nonetheless, he makes one positive assertion about God’s "nature": it is "entirely perfect wisdom and knowledge."

Aristides also outlines the main aspects of the relationships between God, the world, and humanity. God created everything for humanity, sustains the heavens and all visible and invisible things, and moves the world and all within it. From this, Aristides concludes that the Divine is superior to the world: "It is known that everything that moves is stronger than what is moved, and that which contains is stronger than what is contained."

Subsequent apologists build upon these ideas. Justin, in his "First Apology," counters the Stoics who claimed that God transforms into fire by asserting that "we believe that God, the Creator of all, transcends mutable things." In "Dialogue with Trypho the Jew," he defines God as "that which remains always the same and is the cause of the existence of other beings." In Athenagoras's "Plea for the Christians," we encounter even more philosophical discussions about God, utilizing philosophical categories to rationalize the Christian faith, even though he seeks confirmation of his reasoning from prophetic testimonies. For instance, he argues that God is uncreated because "the existent does not receive being, but only the non-existent does." He also describes God’s actions in a brief summary of the Book of Genesis: God is the One who stretched out and surrounded the heavens, established the earth like a center, gathered the waters into seas, separated light from darkness, adorned the ether with stars, and commanded the earth to produce seeds, created animals, and made man.

A particularly noteworthy aspect of philosophical discussion is the relationship between God and matter. Justin begins to address this in Christian apologetics, noting that God "arranged everything from shapeless matter." Athenagoras discusses the relationship between God and matter in greater detail than others, including Tatian. He states that God is uncreated and eternal, while matter is created and corruptible. He describes God as the productive cause (an Aristotelian category) and concludes that "it is not reasonable to think that matter is older than God; for the productive cause must necessarily exist before that which is produced by it." He illustrates this relationship through the analogy of an artist and the material, which are necessary to each other; without their interaction, "forms would not be impressed." Athenagoras provides a more vivid example: "Just as a potter relates to clay... so God the Creator relates to the matter subjected to His artistry." Clay cannot become a vessel without the artist, and matter would not receive form without God. These positions suggest that, unlike Philo, the apologists moved towards religious monism: their sole principle is God, who creates matter. However, matter remains an intermediary in the creation of the world: first, matter is created, and from it, the world is formed, indicating that they do not yet propose the thesis of creation ex nihilo.

Justin also introduces the early notions related to Christian epistemology, particularly the undeniable supremacy of faith over experience and rational knowledge. This assertion arose from the need to justify the resurrection of Christ to pagans, a concept incompatible with experience and reason. Justin expresses this view by stating: "We consider it better to believe even in what is impossible for our nature and for people."

Among the anthropological issues, the apologists (Justin) begin to address the important question of free will, contrasting it with fatalism. Justin refers to life experience, noting that a person "with free will either acts well or sins"; moreover, they can transition from vice to virtue, changing. He allows for inevitable fate only in one case: those who choose good will be rewarded, while those who choose the opposite will be punished. He interprets the inevitability of future events predicted by prophets in the same vein: "God, knowing beforehand the future actions of all men... foretells through the prophetic Spirit that they will receive from Him according to the worth of their deeds."

In the apologetics of Aristides and Justin, we find isolated statements of a religious-philosophical nature. Tatian's work, however, presents a more systematic account of Christian worldview. In his "Oration Against the Greeks," he offers a comprehensive narrative of Christian thought. He begins with God, describing Him in the spirit of his predecessors. God has no beginning in time. He is without beginning and is Himself the origin of all things: both perceptible and imperceptible. Yet He remains invisible and intangible, beyond any artistic representation. We come to know Him through His creation and His works. Tatian then proceeds to describe the Divine acts.

Before the creation of the world, the Lord was alone. But as He is the foundation of everything, everything was with Him, including the rational force, the Logos itself. Then, by His will, the Logos was born. This birth is peculiar—"through communication, not by division," meaning the Logos did not separate from the beginning nor deprive the Father of the Logos. Tatian explains their unity with examples: the light of a torch is not diminished when other torches are lit; the speaker does not lose their words by passing them on. The Logos becomes the principle of the world: "The Logos, born in the beginning, in turn, produced our world, creating for Himself the substance." In these words, we find two significant points: the Logos plays a mediating role in the creation of the world, and matter is unequivocally declared to be created. Athenagoras, using more philosophical language, expresses the same idea: the Logos (Son of God) proceeds from the Father "to be the idea and active force for all material things."

Returning to Tatian, he asserts that "matter is not without beginning, as God is, nor does it possess power equal to God; it has a beginning and is not produced by anyone else, but is created by the one Creator of all." Matter is foundational to the world’s structure. The heavens and stars are made of matter, and the earth with all its contents has the same composition. Matter’s transformation is described as follows: "Matter was unformed and shapeless before being divided into elements; after division, it became adorned and ordered." Beyond the heavens lies a higher world, which knows no weather changes but has a constant, blessed air, a perpetual day, and light inaccessible to earthly beings.

Tatian illustrates the mediation of the Logos well when discussing humanity: "The Logos... following the example of the Father who begot Him, created man." Humanity is created as immortal and free, capable of choosing good by the free determination of its will, as goodness is not inherently part of its nature. Free will has led to humanity’s downfall; it sold itself into sin and produced evil but can reject it again.

Tatian also presents an important position for Christian justification of mortality and immortality (resurrection), concerning two kinds of spirits. One spirit, called the soul, is connected to the matter of which man is composed; the other spirit is higher than matter and soul. The spirit is the image and likeness of God in man; through it, God dwells in man. Initially, the spirit dwelt with the soul, uplifting it; but it was expelled by sin, and the soul fell to earth and engaged with the lower. The "material spirit" connects humanity to the whole world, as it is present in stars, plants, animals, and humans. The soul itself is mortal and perishes with the body, being "darkness... foreign to knowledge"; but if it is united with the Divine spirit (light, secret knowledge, truth), it receives aid and is only temporarily destroyed, then ascends to where the spirit leads it—to heaven. The distinction between soul and spirit allows Tatian to point out the difference between Greeks and Christians: the former possess only the soul, while the latter seek the spirit.

In Christian religious anthropology, the theme of resurrection holds significant importance. Tatian argues for the truth of resurrection as follows: Before birth, man existed in the essence of bodily matter. Once "born, ceasing to exist and be visible through death," he will again exist in the likeness of the unborn. Even if the body is scattered like vapor or torn apart by beasts, it will be preserved in the Lord’s treasury, who "will restore the essence visible only to Him when He wishes."

The apologist Athenagoras, listed after Tatian, wrote the first specialized work on this subject, "On the Resurrection of the Dead." The principal points of his teaching on resurrection can be expressed as follows: For those who bear the image of their Creator, possess reason, and are endowed with understanding, the soul is immortal; while bodies themselves are mortal. When one’s mortal body is destroyed, it is retained in the earth until the day of resurrection. In his work, Athenagoras proves the truth of resurrection through arguments on divine justice and the spiritual nature of humanity. He notes the impossibility of immortality without resurrection, asserting that souls "cannot be separated from bodies for eternity." Resurrection is also seen as an act of divine justice: "God's justice, revealed through the resurrection, rewards good deeds and punishes the wicked." This justice would be incomprehensible if the resurrection were denied, as punishment or reward would be meaningless without the resurrection of both body and soul. The soul, separate from the body after death, is sustained by divine goodness.

In summary, the apologists' works provide a comprehensive account of the formation of early Christian philosophy, addressing fundamental aspects of God, matter, free will, and resurrection. Their philosophical explorations laid the groundwork for Christian thought and contributed to the development of religious philosophy in the context of Hellenistic traditions and the challenges faced by early Christians.

With the emergence of humanity and its presence in paradise, Theophilus touches upon a crucial topic in religious anthropology: the communication between God and man. This subject intersects with a significant issue in Christian religious philosophy—interpreting the anthropomorphic depiction of God in the Old Testament, which contrasts with the Christian description of God in the spirit of apophatic theology that Theophilus himself adhered to. In response to Autolycus's request to describe the appearance of God, Theophilus asserts that God's form is indescribable and incomprehensible, as it cannot be perceived by physical eyes. He provides the following justification for biblical anthropomorphism, which aligns with mythological and ancient pagan views of the gods. Theophilus explains that in paradise, it was not God who walked, for He cannot be located in any place; rather, it was His Word, which took the form of the Father and Lord and conversed with Adam. This Word, the Father of the Universe, can be sent to any place by the will of God, and when it appears there, it becomes audible and visible and occupies a specific location. This statement by Theophilus is noteworthy for transforming the Word into an emanation of God in the sensory world, serving as a mediator between God and man, thus laying the foundation for interpreting Christ as the incarnate Word.

Initially, humanity interacts with and knows God in paradise. However, regarding communication with and understanding of God in the world, Theophilus's perspective can be described as a combination of mystical and scholastic paths to knowledge of God. On one hand, he posits that there are special ears of the heart and eyes of the soul to perceive God. God is visible to those who are capable of seeing Him, whose spiritual eyes are open. This is the mystical direction. On the other hand, he believes that God is known through His providence and actions, similar to how the soul is known through the movement of the body. God's works are natural phenomena: the changing of seasons, the orderly movement of stars, and so on. Thus, we judge or infer about God based on the observation and explanation of natural phenomena. This represents a scholastic approach. The results of these inferences include the names of God that Theophilus provides. For instance, God is called the Creator because He made everything; the Almighty because He governs and sustains all. The name "God (Θεός)" is derived from the verb "γέγοναι" (to be), which Theophilus attributes a series of meanings: to run, to move, to produce, to nourish, to foresee, to govern, to give life to all.

As Christian historians of philosophy, the apologists offered a Christian understanding of the source of true wisdom and outlined the Christian attitude towards pagan philosophy. Starting with Aristides' apology "On the Worship of the Almighty God," we find only a very distant approach to the history of Christian philosophy in the form of categorizing people into four types based on their progression towards true understanding of God: barbarians, Greeks, Jews, and Christians. Barbarians had no true concept of God, as they worshipped the heavens, the earth, the sea, the sun, and the moon, considering these as mere perishable elements. Aristides provides evidence that the worldly elements are not gods: the heavens are not a god as they are moved by compulsion and consist of many parts; the earth is not a goddess as it is subject to human dominion, and so forth. Aristides refers to this understanding of gods among the barbarians as what we now call natural theism.

He then turns to Greek "science of the nature of the gods" and demonstrates the inadequacy of anthropomorphic representations of the gods in Greek mythology, concluding that if stories about gods are myths, they are nothing but words; if they are of a naturalistic character, then those described as such are not gods; and if they are allegories, they are merely myths. Regarding the Jews, Aristides notes that they approach the truth more closely than any other people with their teaching about the existence of the "One God, Almighty Creator of all."

Justin, on the other hand, posits a central position in the Christian historiography of philosophy regarding the Divine Word as the source of true wisdom, which also spoke through certain pagan philosophers. This allowed him to show a certain continuity between ancient philosophy and Christian teaching, avoiding its complete rejection and suggesting a unified historical-philosophical process. This is evident from his positive stance towards philosophy, which he expresses in a religious spirit: "Philosophy is the greatest possession in the eyes of God: it alone leads us to God and makes us pleasing to God."

Justin writes that the Word first rebuked wicked demons through Socrates, who was guided by true reason. Then, it took a visible form, became human, and was named Jesus Christ. In this context, Plato is positioned as a precursor to Christian teaching about the punishment of sinners. Justin emphasizes, which was crucial for defending the Christian worldview, that on some issues there are no contradictions between him and philosophy: "When we say that everything is arranged and created by God, it turns out that we express Plato’s teaching; when we assert that the world will be burned, we align with the Stoics." This agreement is due to the fact that "each of them... partially understood what was sown in the Word of God."

Using Plato's teaching as an example, Justin articulates another important position in Christian historiography of philosophy: that Greek philosophy is an imprecise, approximate expression of the teachings of Old Testament sages and prophets, as philosophers did not possess Divine grace. He generalizes about philosophers, poets, and historians: "All those writers, through the innate seed of the Word, could see the truth, but dimly. For it is one thing to have a seed and some resemblance of something given according to acceptability, and another to possess what participation and resemblance was given by His grace." Justin believes that they did not grasp what philosophy truly is and for what purpose it was bestowed upon people, and thus divided into Platonists, Stoics, Peripatetics, and Pythagoreans, following their teachers without independent investigation of the truth, even though "knowledge is only one." Based on this, Justin concludes that "our teaching... is above all human philosophy."

Regarding Plato specifically, Justin contends that he repeated what Moses said when he spoke of God transforming formless matter to create the world. Justin also notes that Plato read about the cross made to combat serpents but misunderstood the image and claimed that the force closest to the first God, i.e., the Son of God, was present in the universe like the letter X. Plato also mentioned a "third," referring to Moses’s words about the Spirit of God moving over the waters. Thus, Justin depicts Plato as a natural philosopher who vaguely expressed the Christian view of God the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, imitating Moses.

This characterization of pagan philosophy allows Justin to assert the Christian historiography position that prophets are the true initiators of philosophy: "There were people much older than philosophers—righteous and pleasing to God, who spoke through the Holy Spirit and foretold the future... they are called prophets. They alone knew and proclaimed the truth to people." Justin’s views represent a direction in Christian philosophical historiography that regarded pagan philosophy as a sort of offshoot of the prophetic teachings. This perspective, along with his philosophical education, did not go unnoticed by his contemporaries, and he earned the title "Justin the Philosopher."

Athenagoras shared a similar view of philosophy as resonant with Christian wisdom. He sought support from philosophers on various points of defending Christian views. His notable words include: "Without naming philosophers, it is impossible to show that we are not the only ones who worship God as one." Consequently, his apology includes a significant doxography of philosophers, particularly concerning their monotheism, resurrection of the body, and other issues. Nevertheless, he maintains the view of a fundamental difference between Christian teaching and philosophy, as expressed by Justin. This difference lies in the fact that philosophy is human knowledge, not divine: "In them [philosophers] there was not enough ability to grasp the truth because they sought to acquire knowledge of God not from God but from themselves." In contrast, Christians have the prophets as witnesses who proclaimed God by inspiration from the Divine Spirit.

Tatian, a disciple of Justin, represents a contrasting view in Christian historiography of philosophy, which denies any positive pre-Christian content in pagan philosophy. His highly critical historiography is based on the opposition between Christian teaching and philosophy. He begins with the declaration: "I have rejected your wisdom." He then outlines the main points of divergence between philosophers and Christians: "They say that God is a body, but I say He is incorporeal; they say the world is indestructible, but I affirm it will be destroyed; they say the world is consumed at different times, but I say it will be consumed only once; they recognize Minos and Rhadamanthus as judges, but I recognize God Himself; they attribute immortality to the soul alone, but I attribute it to both the soul and body together." Tatian also disagrees with the division of time into past, present, and future, as God's time is the present, and the division of time is a subjective human opinion. Just as those sailing on a ship believe that the mountains are moving rather than their vessel, so people fail to notice that it is they who are passing, "while the age stands still as long as the Creator wills."

It is therefore quite clear that none of the Greek philosophical teachings, not even Plato's, merit Tatian's approval. Here are some examples to illustrate this point. Aristotle, for instance, unreasonably limits Providence, and his followers assert that it does not extend beyond sublunary matters. He also questions the immortality of the soul. According to his teaching, those who lack beauty, wealth, physical health, or nobility cannot be truly happy. Zenon is similarly dismissed for his belief that through burning, people will be resurrected to perform the same deeds, arguing that there will always be more wicked people than righteous ones. In Tatian's view, God is the author of evil and dwells in impure places.

Tatian, like Justin, begins the history of philosophy with the Old Testament sages. He asserts that "our philosophy is older than the teachings of the Greeks." Moses, he claims, is the "originator of all wisdom among the barbarians." In lengthy historical excursions, Tatian demonstrates that Moses predates Homer, even Orpheus, having lived 400 years before the Trojan War. By doing so, he establishes the basis for a Christian understanding of the history of philosophy and, specifically, Greek philosophy, which subsequent Christian writers built upon in their historical and philosophical concepts. He expresses this idea as follows: "Moses lived before the ancient heroes, wars, and demons. Since he is earlier in time, he should be believed more than the Greeks, who, not acknowledging him, borrowed his teachings. Many of their sophists, having explored the writings of Moses and similar philosophers out of curiosity, tried to adapt his teachings to make it seem like they were saying something original, and to cover up what they did not understand with fictional verbal shells, giving the truth the appearance of a fable." These words can be seen as a program for the history of philosophy as a process of idea transmission with a regressive direction.

Overall, the philosophical historiography of the apologists, whether Justin or Tatian, is ideological and religious rather than scientific. It is based on the simple assumption, historically and factually unsubstantiated, that those who lived later must have borrowed from those who lived earlier. Their views are essentially an early variant of the idea of the Eastern origins of Greek philosophy, which some historians of philosophy still hold, and can be described as Judeocentrism in the history of philosophy.

A similar perspective on pagan philosophy is held by Theophilus, though he is less unequivocal in his negative view of Greek philosophers. He discusses the teachings of poets and philosophers to "show the useless and godless nature of their thoughts." He states: "They spoke of the gods, but then taught godlessly; they spoke of the origin of the world, but in the end asserted that everything came into being by itself; they spoke of Providence and then taught that the world exists without Providence." From these remarks, it is clear that Theophilus criticizes ancient philosophy as a religious thinker.

As a historian of philosophy, it must be noted that Theophilus primarily presents a critical doctrine on the understanding of God and the relationship between God and matter, indicating his philosophical acumen and recognition of the importance of these issues for philosophy. Friedrich Engels once described this question as "the fundamental question of philosophy." Here are some examples of his critical remarks about philosophers on these matters. Homer did not depict God accurately, for the ocean is water; and if it is water, then it is not God. A similar remark is made by Theophilus regarding the atomists: "Those who said that gods exist then reduced them to nothing. Some claimed they were made of atoms, others that they transformed into atoms." This implies that God cannot be identical to matter. Hesiod, in turn, did not show who created everything. If chaos existed first and there was a pre-existing uncreated matter, then who arranged and gave it order and appearance? Did it not give itself form and beauty? Thus, Theophilus does not allow for any self-organization of matter. Finally, in his examination of Plato’s views, he condemns the recognition of God and matter as eternal, claiming that if God and matter are eternal, then God is no longer the creator of all things. What is the greatness if God created the world from pre-existing matter? Therefore, Theophilus demands that matter be considered secondary to God, expressing a position of idealist philosophy, and condemns Plato for considering matter to be primary with respect to the gods: "Plato, having said that gods exist, does not hesitate to derive them from substance."

The overall concept of the history of philosophy in Theophilus’s view is the same as that of other apologists—Judeocentric, meaning the history of philosophy begins with the biblical prophets. He holds a similar view regarding historical knowledge: "One can see how ancient and true our writings are compared to Greek, Egyptian, and other historians." Moreover, history supports his view of philosophy: "From examining the times, one can see the antiquity of prophetic writings." For example, when discussing post-mortem punishments, he writes: "These punishments were foretold by the prophets; your poets and philosophers who came after them stole this teaching from the sacred writings to lend credibility to their own opinions." According to Theophilus, this borrowing indicates that Greek poets and philosophers were "motivated by truth" and moved towards a Christian worldview: "Writers who spoke of many gods returned to the divine sovereignty; those who denied Providence spoke of Providence." He even makes this statement: "But what importance does it have whether they [Greek poets] lived later or earlier than the prophets? It is true that they spoke in accordance with the prophets." He also gives this recommendation: "One who critically examines the opinions of philosophers and poets should carefully consider and discuss what they say."

The most negative attitude toward philosophy is found in "The Mockery of Pagan Philosophers" by Hermias. Hermias's work is an example of philosophical doctrinal collection, i.e., a compilation of philosophical opinions on various issues. The presentation of philosophers' opinions by Hermias is quite objective and reliable, as it aligns with data from other sources and does not contradict the views of contemporary historians of philosophy, as will be evident from the examples provided below. However, it is used with one goal in mind—to discredit philosophy.

Unlike other apologists, even Tatian, who traced Greek philosophy to the Word (Justin) or at least to the prophets, Hermias attributes its origins, in essence, to the devil: "This wisdom originated from the fall of the angels, and because of this, philosophers presenting their teachings are not in agreement with each other." For example: "Some of them regard the human soul as fire, others as air, some as mind, others as movement, and others as vapor." This disagreement among philosophers, which other apologists also noted, Hermias considers the main flaw in philosophical teachings, as it presumably contradicts his understanding of truth as agreement or consensus among people on some matter (such an idea of truth was once held in philosophy), as evidenced by his words: "If philosophers disagree about the soul of man, how much less could they have spoken the truth about the gods or the world?" It is clear that he contrasts philosophical searches for truth with religious dogmatism.

In the variety of philosophical opinions, Hermias also finds a psychological or pedagogical flaw: encountering them, a person cannot settle on any single one and learns nothing. Here is an example of his reasoning on this matter: "If I were to meet Anaxagoras, he would teach me this: the beginning of all things is mind... he brings the disorder into order... I like this teaching of Anaxagoras, and I fully agree with his thoughts. But against him rises Melissus and Parmenides; the latter proclaims that being is one. I again, for some reason, agree with this teaching, and Parmenides drives Anaxagoras from my soul. When I think I have settled my thoughts, Anaximenes comes along, saying that everything is air... I again side with this opinion and now love Anaximenes."

From such examples, his conclusions can be summarized as: "How long shall I accept such teachings and learn nothing true?" and "What should I do after such long and tedious inquiries? How can I free my mind from such a multitude of opinions?"

Overall, in Hermias's overview, the reader finds more irony, mockery, and even sharp expressions against philosophers than substantive criticism. He himself summarizes his work with: "I have said all this to show how philosophers contradict each other in opinions, how their inquiries get lost in infinity, not settling on anything, and how unreachable and useless their efforts are, unsupported by either obviousness or sound reason."