Philosophy of The Renaissance and Reformation

Anthropocentrism as a New Philosophical Paradigm

The Renaissance is intimately connected with the cultural phenomenon of humanism. The term itself first appeared in documents from the late 15th century. Renaissance humanism represents a return to the essence of humanity, restoring to humans (homo) their humanity (humanitas). Thinkers of this era turned their reflections toward the individual, contrasting them with the non-human—the being that has lost its essence (homo bestia), described as "inhuman" (in Russian).

The phrase "homo humanitas" (human person) was first used by the ancient Greeks as a counterpoint to "homo barbarus" (barbaric human). The issue of humanitas as the striving for humanity, aimed at creating conditions for a dignified human existence, was explored during the Hellenistic period. In that context, the homo humanus was envisioned as a Greek, a bearer of the Greek language and all "Greek virtues," thus making linguistic criteria dominant. Those who did not speak Greek (even the Latins at that time) were deemed homo barbarus—wild men, beasts (from which our term "barbarians" derives).

Later, as the Romans assumed a leading role in the ancient world, they adopted the concept of humanism, infusing it with a different meaning. Homo humanitas became the Roman citizen who perfected Roman "virtues" through the assimilation and "inheritance" of the late Hellenistic educational ideals, encompassed by the term eruditio (the circle of knowledge). The defining factor then shifted from linguistic principles to legal relations. Henceforth, homo humanus referred to the Roman, a bearer and proponent of Roman law, synonymous with romanitas (Roman-ness), the essence of a "Roman" person.

Thus, in Rome, we encounter a second historical form of humanism, a specific Roman phenomenon arising from the synthesis of Roman civic identity and the learning of late Hellenism. The Germanic tribes beyond the Rhine, who did not embrace "Roman-ness" in any form, were deemed "barbarians," uncultured and uncivilized in relation to the Romans.

The third historical type of humanism emerged in the 14th and 15th centuries in Italy, representing a "rebirth" of Roman dignity, rena scentia romanitas (Latin), yet in content, it evolved into a qualitatively new concept infused with Christian ideals. Humanity is proclaimed as human by its very nature, simply because one is born into this world as a person created in the image and likeness of God, irrespective of the language spoken or the level of legal development.

As romanitas is revived, the notion of humanitas also reflects the Greek wisdom of late Hellenism and the broader ideals of antiquity, including concepts of private property and Roman law. Feudalism in the Middle Ages recognized only vassal dependence. Without these foundational ideas of antiquity, understanding the Renaissance of the 14th and 15th centuries becomes challenging, as private property is fundamental to the development of a free individual.

During this time, the demand for intellectual labor increased, leading to a rise in the number of individuals in "free professions." A category of people emerged who called themselves "humanists," marking the birth of a secular intelligentsia in contrast to the spiritual class of the Middle Ages. Humanism became a fashionable identity; to be a humanist meant to be modern and "in vogue." This trend embraced everything ancient, but its origins remain unclear. Scholars of this era rarely mention the event that served as an external "catalyst" for this trend: the fall of Constantinople in 1453. People from the eastern part of the former Roman Empire, later referred to as Byzantium, were compelled to leave Asia Minor due to the advancing armies of Islam.

Christians of orthodox faith migrated northward to Moscow, bringing with them the two-headed eagle, the last legitimate heir of the Byzantine throne, Sophia Palaiologos, along with a great library. They contributed to the formation of authentic Orthodoxy with its idea of "Moscow as the Third Rome." However, Sophia could only impart and inspire what she herself valued, which was also understood and appreciated in Moscow.

Another part of the population moved westward, giving an external impetus to the humanist idea and the social movement of the humanists in Italy. The center of this new idea and the formation of a new philosophical paradigm—anthropocentrism—was the Florentine Platonic Academy (1459), which gathered around it prominent philosophers, poets, artists, diplomats, and politicians. The nature of such gatherings fundamentally differed from the official philosophical centers, the universities, and monastic schools of the time: there were no lectures delivered here, yet profound philosophical conversations flourished. The new humanist orientation of the Renaissance era was most prominently expressed in the doctrine of man, who was placed at the center of the cosmos in a harmonious (which means beautiful) world. Its task was self-improvement, which signifies the ascent toward the highest essence—God.

An important characteristic of the secular intelligentsia became the anti-sacral (that is, not connected with sacred rites and opposed to them) nature of this humanist movement. Anti-sacrality is associated with the process of secularization (literally, the alienation of church property, primarily land, for the benefit of the state), meaning the liberation of all spheres of life from the influence of religion and the church.

Thus, "Renaissance" can be defined as a conscious return to another cultural tradition, to different connections than those that dominate a given culture. People are convinced that they are reviving something from the past; however, the essential content of any revival is the creation of something new.

At the origins of the philosophical culture of the Renaissance stands the magnificent figure of Dante Alighieri (1265-1321). He is the last poet of the Middle Ages and simultaneously the first poet of the New Age; he is regarded as the progenitor of humanism in the Renaissance. Dante articulated his humanist worldview in the "Divine Comedy," which consists of three parts: "Hell," "Purgatory," and "Paradise," in which he described his journey to God, following the ancient Greek myth of the Argonauts who traveled across the sea for the golden fleece in Colchis.

Dante reflects on the structure of the world, both here and in the afterlife, on moral values, on God and the soul, on the Creator and His creation, and on the high calling of humanity. He seeks to demonstrate that the root of human existence lies in the freedom of will, which can only be realized through genuine action.

Dante's anthropocentrism is determined, on one hand, by God and, on the other, by nature. Both paths lead to the good: philosophical contemplation, meaning human reason, and "spiritual guidance" that comes from the Holy Spirit. Dante's humanism rests on the premise that each individual is responsible for their own well-being, where personal qualities play a decisive role. This thinker belongs to those ideologues who combined their anthropocentric humanism with the concept of the "two truths." One path to truth lies through the church and the Holy Scriptures to God, while the other path traverses universities and secular sciences toward the knowledge of Nature.

Humanity is the result of the union of the natural and the divine (mortal and immortal). For Dante, humanity has a dual purpose: on one hand, it exists for itself as part of nature, and on the other, for God as a result of His creation. The goal of life is earthly bliss, enabling individuals to achieve happiness in the real world, stemming from their God-like nature.

Initially, the work was titled "Comedy," and the epithet "Divine" was employed in the analysis of the poem by the Italian humanist Giovanni Boccaccio. The epithet "divine" signifies, in the language of humanism, not so much sacrality as a certain evaluation—the highest degree of perfection that humanity has achieved in its creative endeavors. Hence, Dante's "Comedy" is referred to as "Divine." Since then, it has been published under the title "The Divine Comedy."

If Dante is the inspirer of the humanists, then the universally acknowledged founder of the humanist movement in Italy was the poet and philosopher Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374). A great propagandist and admirer of ancient culture, his "Songbook" in honor of the Madonna Laura signifies not only a shift in focus from ontological issues to the internal, ethical concerns of humanity but also a fundamental reconstruction of the entire worldview. For Petrarca, the Renaissance is not merely a replacement of theocentrism with anthropocentrism; it embodies the humanistic character of anthropocentrism. Humanism forms the main movement in the spiritual life of the era, defining the essential content of philosophical thought during the Renaissance.

Petrarca saw the purpose of philosophy as the grasping of the true essence and nature of humanity. The thinker sought answers to questions such as: for what purpose does humanity live, where does it come from, and where does it go? What in this world contributes to the happiness of individuals? In his inquiries, he turned to the works of Plato, Cicero, Seneca, Virgil, and other thinkers of antiquity, as well as to the writings of early Christian thinkers like Augustine. He found points of contact between Christianity and ancient philosophy.

Petrarca believed that individuals have the right to happiness in earthly life. He understood the concept of "humanism" as the awareness of one's uniqueness and the ability to live a rich life, uncovering the wealth of meanings embedded by God through personal activity. The reward for such a life would be immortality—not in a heavenly sense, but in an earthly one—as glory and memory for future generations.

Individuals must find themselves, uncover their human essence, to unite with others. Concern for one's homeland and love for one's neighbor are closely intertwined in his philosophy with the internal self-improvement of individuals, which is a prerequisite for any fruitful activity on earth.

Petrarca stood at the origins of European individualism; he called upon individuals to turn inward, not to confine themselves to "selfhood," but to seek in the depths of the spirit the Divine and to know Him.

According to Petrarca, individualism and introspection should inspire creative impulses in human life. These fundamental characteristics of early humanist philosophy were later embraced by other humanists.

Humanism regards the place of humanity in the world not from the perspective of sin and salvation but as a question of human dignity. Human dignity lies, above all, in recognizing the possibility for individuals to rise from the "savage," "barbaric," and "animal" state to a truly human (civilized) life. Thus, the Renaissance era places the beauty of humanity as the highest creation of God at the forefront.

The spiritual heir to the illustrious Petrarch is considered to be Lorenzo Valla (1407-1457), an Italian critic, teacher, humanist, translator, philosopher, and author of works such as "On True and False Good" and "On Free Will." His understanding of the intrinsic value of humanity leads to a new interpretation of "good," "avarice," and an exaltation of "pleasure" and "personal interest." Lorenzo Valla perceives the satisfaction of both soul and body as a form of "good," equating pleasure with a self-justifying goal. It is worth recalling Augustine of Hippo, for whom the highest pleasure resided in the knowledge of absolute truth in the City of God. Valla seemingly contradicts him, emphasizing that high morality is a vacuous, senseless, and rather dangerous concept, asserting that nothing is more delightful and wonderful than pleasure. Even Paradise, to him, is but a chalice of refined delights. For Valla, pleasure involves an emotional-intellectual convergence, while benevolence necessitates an inner control that encompasses four virtues: prudence, temperance, justice, and modesty.

Valla wrote extensively on love. Here, "love" significantly overlaps with sensual pleasure. Consequently, "love" becomes the purpose of human existence, where life is a quest for what yields enjoyment or satisfaction—this, indeed, is what one ought to cherish. Thus, "love" acquires a utilitarian essence: one may love only for something. Even God is loved solely because He is the source of goods. The criterion of good is personal benefit. For Valla, good possesses additional characteristics, such as the absence of misfortune, danger, or anxiety; to be someone who is loved by all. Only such a good can genuinely be a source of pleasure.

Among the new moral values, which provocatively challenged Catholic sensibilities, avarice and desire hold a special place. The Italian humanist and writer Poggio Bracciolini (1380-1459) dedicates his dialogue "On Avarice" to this very theme. Under Christian norms, avarice is known as a grave sin. However, if one interprets this concept objectively and comprehensively—eschewing a reduction to merely negative human traits and ascribing it a social resonance—it becomes clear that societal prosperity, necessitating cultural, scientific, and artistic development, is unachievable in poverty. There must be a certain level of wealth. Who brings and invests this wealth into society? The rich, avaricious individuals. Therefore, in this context, avarice transforms from a sin into a societal virtue. Thus, rather than expelling the "avaricious," society ought to welcome them, for they are the backbone and support of nations. Integrity cannot be confined to good intentions; it demands active engagement. To desire societal prosperity and to act decisively toward its achievement are not synonymous for the humanists of the Renaissance.

A conscious challenge to the prevalent work of Pope Innocent III, "On Contempt for the World," was presented by the Italian humanist and politician Giannozzo Manetti (1396-1459) in his treatise "On the Dignity and Superiority of Man." This work is a hymn to humanity, celebrating both its corporeal and spiritual beauty, which the author juxtaposes against the lamentation of death and the sorrow over the triviality of human life found in medieval treatises.

Manetti endeavors to demonstrate that humanity does not oppose God; rather, it is His highest creation: the human body is the finest of all creations; humanity has entered this world for joys that far exceed sorrows; the ethics of pleasure is justified as it affirms the existence of humanity and the world; humanity is beautiful through its deeds, and thanks to their value, one may anticipate otherworldly bliss. The conclusion of the work asserts that humanity is not merely a "co-creator" with God, as Petrarch maintained, but also a competitor. This represents a manifestation of anthropocentrism with all its negative worldview implications, which subsequently enriched European consciousness.

The subsequent century, marked by religious wars, socio-political and national conflicts, somewhat tempered the excessive optimism characteristic of Italian humanists regarding the exceptional potential of humanity to realize its natural abilities in transforming the surrounding world on the principles of reason, love, and common sense. Its hallmark was a joyous understanding of free thought and a heightened interest in the fate and possibilities of humanity, as well as its right to personal happiness, alongside a desire for practical application of knowledge. Often, this humanism morphed into individualism with egoistic traits. A time for more tempered and profound reflections on the phenomenon of human existence ensued. Rather than grand declarations about humanity as the central link in the cosmic hierarchy or the pinnacle of divine creation, new thinkers focused on the inner world of the individual, employing psychological analysis of personality. A defining feature of this new humanistic consciousness was a rejection of the idea of anthropocentrism, which hindered predecessors from identifying humanity's true place within nature and society.