Social Philosophy

Social Philosophy as a Branch of Philosophical Knowledge

The philosophical analysis of social reality inevitably occurs within the framework of the relationship between "individual—society." An individual can only realize their essence within society; thus, the subject of social philosophy is society as a holistic system, considered through the interaction of all its facets. As a distinct branch of philosophy, social philosophy examines and elucidates social phenomena and processes at the most general level, enabling us to envision society as a system capable of self-development and self-reproduction. The evolution of society is characterized by numerous factors, including economic, political, cultural, social, and spiritual elements.

As a theoretically formulated system of philosophical views on society, social philosophy emerged in the first half of the 19th century. However, the issues concerning the existence and development of society began to take shape in ancient times, starting with Plato and his "Ideal State"; Augustine's "City of God" during the Middle Ages; the social contract theories of the Enlightenment; and the sociological concepts of positivism. Based on the accumulated knowledge throughout history regarding this subject, several philosophical concepts regarding the interpretation of the notion of society have developed: naturalistic, sociological, psychological, active, dialectical-materialistic, praxeological, and others.

The naturalistic concept, which could be encapsulated in the formula "from nature to society," emphasizes the determining role of geographical and demographic factors, adding a biological dimension, wherein humans are examined through the lens of genetics and evolutionary theory. Consequently, the social is reduced to the biological, and the process of development is presented as a gene-cultural evolution.

The psychological approach to the existence of society, which could also be termed sociopsychologism, constructs society by analogy with the isolated individual, seeking psychological causes within physiological ones while disregarding cultural phenomena and social practices. The origins of the social are seen in human instincts—instinctivism. A prominent variant of this is Freudianism, the most influential direction in social psychology, which grounds the struggle between life instincts (Eros) and death instincts (Thanatos) in conjunction with human hypersexuality as the foundation of social existence. The high level of individual aggression resulting from such a struggle can only be mitigated by spiritual culture (religion, moral prescriptions, social feelings), which serves as a reliable safeguard against the instinct of aggression.

In the theory of social action (M. Weber, T. Parsons), social philosophy is characterized as theoretical sociology, primarily studying the behavior and actions of individuals. Since social philosophy is tasked with investigating relationships across all spheres of human activity (economic, religious, moral, legal), society emerges as the interaction of individuals and social groups based on the alignment of their economic interests, religious preferences, morals, and so forth. M. Weber develops what is known as "interpretive sociology," aimed at comprehending and revealing the essence of the spiritual world of social action subjects. Understanding social actions and the inner world of these subjects can manifest as either logical (presented in the form of concepts) or emotionally-psychological (linked to empathy and shared experience).

Weber’s concept of ideal types is grounded in moral, religious, and political values, as well as the rules and norms of behavior that stem from them, which rationalize and organize social life. This significantly elevates the role of science and organizes the interests of individuals who, based on principles of rationality, establish a rule of law and adhere to laws, as well as widely accepted political and moral values.

The theory of society functioning as a holistic system was proposed by T. Parsons. He identifies four levels of organization within social systems:

• Individuals who interact with one another according to their social roles (the theory of social action);
• Collectives formed by individuals according to their social roles;
• Social institutions (education, politics, law, art, etc.);
• Society as a holistic system and the outcome of interactions among individuals, collectives, and social institutions based on a particular value system.

However, such an approach only explains processes occurring within specific spheres of social life, relying on the analysis of particular human activities. The study of society as a holistic system, where social relationships among individuals are more thoroughly considered and the functioning of social institutions is examined, is reflected in Karl Marx's dialectical-materialistic concept. A fundamental aspect of this theory is the view of the individual as a sum of social roles arising from their social interactions, that is, the process of socialization.

According to Marx, human life is conditioned by social production, and society is presented as a conglomerate of social relations. An individual orients and adapts to the surrounding world through consciousness. While animals, given their psyche, can meet their needs by directly responding to reality and navigating specific circumstances, human consciousness (as both a result and a prerequisite of social relations) anticipates a mediated satisfaction of life needs, which are contingent upon social conditions built on the foundation of material production and the very social relations themselves.

Dependence on social conditions manifests in interests. An interest is defined by two primary factors: the content, character, and direction of needs, and the possibility (or impossibility) of satisfying these needs in specific social conditions. Interest dictates the subjectivity of perception, understanding, and evaluation of reality, manifesting as a reflection of the dependence of needs’ satisfaction on the system of social conditions. Thus, it appears as a mediated reflection, where the determining factor is not how or what has been reflected in human consciousness, but rather the significance it holds for the individual. Hence, according to this theory, the basis of interest lies in an evaluative attitude towards living conditions, meaning that these conditions must be consciously recognized, leading to a process of evaluation. This reflection is expressed through feelings and emotions. Therefore, the satisfaction of life's needs occurs indirectly: through material production, social relations, consciousness, goal-setting, freedom, and creativity, adjusting conditions according to one’s needs and interests, as well as the consciousness and knowledge acquired through the understanding of objective reality. The unified socio-economic conditions form the common foundation that explains the similarities between individual and social psyche, yet they cannot account for the internal unity of these phenomena, which consists in their homogeneous manifestation of the spiritual activity of individuals.