Philosophy of Humanity

Ethics (Moral Philosophy)

Teleological Justification of Ethics

In the history of moral philosophy, there have emerged theories that justify ethics not on the basis of their origin but on the basis of their ends. Religious moral concepts, as well as the philosophical ethics of Socrates, Euclid, and Plato, are founded on the axiom that moral norms must be observed because they are established by God. In these systems, God is the source of morality. However, some philosophers, without denying that God is the source of morality, sought to justify it by analyzing its purpose, attempting to explain that moral norms must be followed because their observance or neglect carries significant consequences for individuals and humanity as a whole.

Among the ethical theories that appeal to the purpose of morality as the primary means of justifying moral norms is eudaimonism. This term derives from the Greek word "εὐδαιμονία" (eudaimonia, happiness). At the core of this concept lies the belief that the goal of human life is to attain happiness. All people desire to be happy, and the only path to achieving happiness is through a high standard of moral living. Observing moral norms brings happiness, while violating them brings misfortune. For instance, a good family man finds happiness in his family, and a good citizen strives to create an environment of happiness for both themselves and others. The founder of eudaimonism was the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, who was the first thinker to attempt to justify moral norms based on the universal human pursuit of happiness.

In the Middle Ages, eudaimonism was upheld by Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), a prominent Christian theologian who drew upon Aristotle’s philosophical legacy. Accordingly, he sought to harmonize Christian ethics with eudaimonism, asserting that the greatest happiness of mankind is to become like God, a state achievable only through careful adherence to divine law.

The ancient Greek philosopher Antiochus of Ascalon, who developed Platonic philosophy in antiquity, was the founder of the ethics of life, an ethical theory grounded in the universal human desire to live. Antiochus observed that a common characteristic of all people is the aspiration for life, and this desire forms the basis of morality. The observance of morality by all people ensures the survival of humanity as a whole, as well as each individual person. Total disregard for moral norms has the potential to destroy humankind. For instance, if everyone were to wage war, kill, steal, engage in excessive sexual indulgence, neglect spiritual and intellectual development, violate rules of hygiene, ignore their health, and transgress natural laws, humanity would perish. Antiochus concluded that in order for people to survive, they must lead highly moral lives.

The modern era witnessed a flourishing of philosophy, during which several ethical theories emerged. The most prominent of these, which remains a leading concept in ethics, is utilitarianism. The term comes from the Latin "utilis" (utility). This doctrine was developed by the Englishman Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832), and another Englishman, John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), made significant contributions to its further development. At the core of utilitarianism is the belief that people are egoistic and seek only their own benefit. Utilitarians argue that the pursuit of personal benefit is not evil; the real evil is having no pursuit at all. Utilitarians speak of rational egoism, with rationality regarded as the highest criterion of truth in modern culture. Since humans are rational egoists, they approach the pursuit of their own benefit with reason. For example, one could obtain material benefit by stealing from someone, but such an action would be irrational: it would result in punishment that outweighs the benefit gained. However, one could create a business that brings material benefit, which would be a rational choice. The degree of rationality in achieving benefit becomes the criterion for morality: if a person achieves benefit rationally, they act virtuously, but if they seek it through irrational means, they commit evil.

Rational egoism compels individuals to explore ways to achieve the greatest benefit. In most areas of life, one cannot obtain significant benefit solely through individual efforts. It is impossible to build a strong economy, a sound legal system, a quality education system, or an effective healthcare system alone. These endeavors require the collective efforts of many. By pooling their efforts, people achieve more than they could on their own, and everyone benefits as a result. Rational egoism is thus the union of collective efforts for the benefit of each individual. True benefit can only be derived from morally good actions. Moral evil, even if it brings immediate benefit, inevitably leads to suffering in the long run. Utilitarians assert that the pursuit of benefit forms the foundation of morality, as well as the development of culture and civilization.

The application of utilitarianism to economics led to the formation of classical economic theory. Adam Smith, its foremost representative, believed that the driving force behind economic development is human rational egoism. People engage in economic relations with others, produce goods, and provide services not out of a desire to help others, but out of a desire for personal gain, which can only be maximized through collective efforts. The pursuit of benefit motivates the entrepreneur to build a factory, but this factory not only benefits the entrepreneur; it also benefits the state, to which they pay taxes, and the workers, who receive jobs and means of survival. The desire to live in a law-abiding state drives people to establish a sound legal system, which improves the lives of all citizens. Thus, utilitarianism is rational egoism, which encourages people to unite their efforts for the common benefit of all.

The attempt to understand morality through the lens of rationality became a popular trend in German philosophy at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. This gave rise to the ethics of reason, developed by thinkers like Max Weber (1864-1920), Ernst Troeltsch (1865-1923), Max Scheler (1874-1928), and others. They operated on the axiom that humans are rational beings. If humans are rational, then their actions are also rational, and thus rationality becomes the key criterion of moral quality. Many of the thinkers who advocated this ethical view were Protestant Lutherans, among whom the rationalization of religion, morality, and culture was highly valued. They argued that Christianity, in its Lutheran form, is the best religion because it is the most rational. They applied this same criterion to morality: people adhere to moral principles because living morally is rational. Unlike utilitarians, proponents of the ethics of reason did not consider people to be egoists, but rather elevated reason as the highest human quality.

The main opponent of eudaimonism was Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), whose moral theory can be called the ethics of duty. Kant posed the question of what constitutes a morally good action, and answered that only actions performed out of duty can be classified as morally good. If an action, no matter how noble, is performed out of fear or self-interest, it cannot be deemed morally good. For instance, if someone performs a good deed because they receive payment or praise for it, or out of fear of punishment, then such an act cannot be evaluated from a moral standpoint. Morality only applies to actions performed in the absence of fear or personal gain. This is what Kant meant by duty. Thus, only actions carried out from a sense of duty can be judged morally. The next question Kant sought to answer was the criterion of moral goodness. He asserted that a morally good action is one governed by the categorical imperative, a universal rule that is obligatory for all. Kant believed that there exists a moral rule that is a self-evident and absolute axiom, which every person is bound to follow. He called this rule the categorical imperative, and formulated it as follows: "Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law." This means that one should act as they would wish all others to act. The categorical imperative is, in essence, a new formulation of the golden rule of morality, expressed by Jesus Christ and recorded in the Gospels: "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you."

Kant regarded morality and the capacity to act out of duty as the defining features of humanity, distinguishing humans from all other creation. He wrote, "Two things fill the mind with ever new and increasing admiration and awe, the more often and steadily we reflect on them: the starry heavens above me and the moral law within me." From these foundations of moral philosophy, Kant also drew religious and philosophical conclusions. Since ethics, in his view, is grounded in the duty to observe the law, and the law cannot arise by itself—without a legislator—there must be a legislator who established the moral law. Since this law is universal, it could only have been established by God. This is the moral proof of God's existence.