The main methods of philosophical discourse - 2024
French Enlightenment
Philosophy of the Modern Age
History of Philosophy
The Enlightenment in France emerged during the unquestionable dominance of Cartesian thought. French Enlightenment thinkers set themselves the goal of making human life happier, attributing all misfortunes to the low level of education. To address these issues, it was necessary to elevate education, that is, to enlighten everyone. With this aim, the idea arose among French intellectuals to write a book that would contain all knowledge in a concise form. This book was called the Encyclopedia. The French term "encyclopédie" is a modification of the Greek "έγκύκλιος παιδεία" (circle of knowledge). The editors of the French Encyclopedia were Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert, around whom a broad circle of authors gathered, captivated by the idea of the Encyclopedia. Thus, the French Enlightenment was inseparable from the Encyclopedia, and French Enlightenment thinkers are known as Encyclopedists.
The founder of the French Enlightenment was François-Marie Arouet Voltaire (1694-1778). Voltaire’s philosophy was characterized by a profound faith in the omnipotence of reason. He believed that reason is the absolute criterion of truth and meaning. Religion, morality, law, and political systems should all be subject to reason. Therefore, he rejected any forms of mystical knowledge, enlightenment, or authority. In Voltaire’s view, reason has limitless potential and can develop endlessly. He believed that humanity, through reason, could achieve unlimited progress. Voltaire did not develop a specific philosophical system but confined himself to criticizing everything that came before him. In the realm of religious philosophy, he took a deistic stance, asserting that God created the world but does not intervene in it. Voltaire is known for his famous remark: "If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him." Although Voltaire did not deny the belief in God, he saw no purpose in religious rituals or institutions. In moral philosophy, Voltaire argued that the existence of good and evil in the world is an undeniable fact, but it is also true that the amount of good and evil in the world can be regulated through enlightenment. The dissemination of rational principles and the construction of rational social institutions can reduce the amount of evil in the world.
The continuator of Voltaire’s ideas was Denis Diderot (1713-1784), the publisher of the Encyclopedia. While Voltaire proclaimed that general education was the key to happiness, morality, and well-being, Diderot set about implementing the idea of enlightenment in practice. The realization of this idea became the Encyclopedia. Diderot was a staunch advocate of the idea of nature. He did not acknowledge the existence of God because God could not be observed in nature. Society would only develop well if it was based on nature. If society created norms of life that contradicted nature, such a society was doomed to misfortune. Philosophy has value only to the extent that it studies nature. Any philosophical speculations are meaningless if they are detached from the study of nature. Likewise, the task of art is to reproduce nature.
Julien Offray de La Mettrie (1709-1751) was an extreme materialist. In his 1748 work "Man a Machine," he argued that only matter exists, and its primary characteristic is that it is mechanically organized. Humans differ from animals only in degree; animals are merely highly organized machines. Thinking is merely a property of the material body. La Mettrie’s materialism was expressed in his hedonism: if nothing exists but matter, then life should be lived solely for pleasure.
Nobleman and Catholic priest Étienne Bonnot de Condillac (1715-1780) focused on the problem of knowledge and adopted a position of sensualism. According to him, the source of knowledge is experience, but Condillac disagreed with Locke’s doctrine of internal experience. For Condillac, experience is only what one perceives through the senses. Sensory data generate knowledge. If a person has performed at least two acts of sensory perception, this is sufficient to compare these sensations, remember them, and thus initiate mental activity. Since sensations produce the mind, and animals have sensations, it can be concluded that they also have minds. Condillac adopted from the early Christian philosopher Arnobius the idea that a statue would have a mind if it had at least the sense of smell. Condillac interpreted this idea within the context of his philosophical stance. This doctrine became known in the history of philosophy as "Condillac’s Statue." Since all knowledge is derived from sensations, sensations are the only reality with which humans come into contact. Knowledge is not the thing itself but the sensation of the thing. Based on this, Condillac believed that for philosophy to be scientific, it must transform into psychology, as psychology studies sensations.
The cult of reason and the fascination with epistemological problems gave rise within the French Enlightenment to a group of philosophers who questioned the reliability of knowledge. Among them was Jean le Rond d'Alembert (1717-1783). According to d'Alembert, the task of science is the study of facts, that is, what is verifiable. Science must reject everything that is not a fact, as it does not fall within its domain. D'Alembert asserted that future science must discard any speculative judgments not observable in experience. Thus, in the realm of religious philosophy, he criticized both theism and atheism, as neither position is supported by empirical evidence. From the collected facts, science should derive laws. If philosophy were stripped of everything not derived from experience, its sole task would become science. Hence, for d'Alembert, philosophy transformed into the science of science. Unlike other Enlightenment thinkers, d'Alembert did not believe in the infinite accumulation of knowledge, as science lacks facts, and the "chain of truths is broken in a thousand places."
Adrian-Claude Helvétius (1715-1771) directed the French Enlightenment towards ethics. He was guided by two fundamental beliefs. First, human beings are inherently selfish and inclined to care only for their own interests. Individuals always seek to do what benefits or pleases them. Second, there are no innate moral principles; everything related to morality is acquired. From these premises, Helvétius concluded that if moral principles are acquired, then society can be structured in such a way that each member develops only good moral traits, thus making the world a better place. If individuals act solely out of self-interest, then society should be organized so that it benefits everyone to do good. Helvétius referred to this ability as the art of scientifically structuring life. He saw this as the primary task not only of education and upbringing but also of legislation and governance—to design social relations to encourage everyone to be good. Motivations based on self-interest are not inherently evil. Loving oneself and striving for one’s own good are considered good moral motives. Evil motives are those of wanting nothing or desiring harm to others. Thus, he approached utilitarianism.
The enthusiasm of the French Enlightenment quickly waned and ultimately gave rise to criticism of the very foundations on which it had been established. The voice of Enlightenment criticism was Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), a Swiss who had moved to France. In 1749, the Academy of Dijon announced an essay competition on the topic, "Has the revival of science and art contributed to the improvement of morals?" Rousseau’s response was negative. People were happier when living naturally. However, at a certain point, humans began to build civilization. At this moment, the worst aspects of human nature were revealed. Civilization made people wicked and selfish. Rousseau believed that everything natural is good, and everything produced by human civilization is evil: "Everything is good as it comes from the hands of the Creator; everything degenerates in the hands of man." The greatest evil produced by civilization is inequality among people. Rousseau wrote that "all men are born equal," but society introduces inequality. History is not progress but regression.
As long as people lived their individual lives and were equal, conflicts did not arise between them. But when people formed societies, the inequality produced by civilization became a source of conflict. To protect themselves, people formed states, whose task is to protect individuals from themselves. Thus, according to Rousseau, the situation in which humanity finds itself makes it evil. There is no way out of this situation. The only thing a person can achieve is to approximate their way of life to the natural as much as possible within the framework of civilization.
Thus, the French Enlightenment, which began with the criticism of all previous achievements, concluded with the self-criticism of itself and its fundamental principles and values.