History of Philosophy

Schools of Contemporary Philosophy

Philosophy of Culture

The culture of the 20th century is often described as postmodern or post-contemporary, characterized by a pervasive denial of the eternal and immutable. Unlike Antiquity, the Middle Ages, or modernity, which sought to construct worldviews, articulate value systems, and define ideals of goodness, beauty, and truth, postmodern culture is founded on a continual negation of everything. What was deemed tasteless in the 19th century has found its place in museum exhibits, while what was considered illogical has come alive in philosophical treatises and literary works. This era was marked by horrific episodes of human cruelty, such as the two World Wars, the Holodomor, the Holocaust, genocides, and the tragedies of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Philosophers emerged with a desire to understand and explain these cultural transformations, giving rise to the philosophy of culture, especially among French-speaking philosophers who developed significant perspectives.

Michel Foucault (1929-1984) asserted that each era is a distinct cultural structure with its own laws and rules. Understanding the peculiarities of a culture requires a degree of detachment from it. Foucault analyzed cultural changes through seldom examined aspects, such as prisons, psychiatric hospitals, and sexuality.

Jacques Derrida (1930-2004) argued that human language originated to facilitate communication between people and is thus inherently illogical and chaotic. Once employed to shape worldviews, it led to the emergence of numerous philosophical concepts that do not correspond to reality. For Derrida, most of the fundamental categories of European philosophy are products of the use of language, which is inadequate for philosophy. His aim was not to create new concepts but to deconstruct existing ones, which is why he referred to his contributions to philosophy as deconstruction.

Jean Baudrillard (1929-2007) made one of the most significant discoveries in contemporary cultural philosophy with his concepts of hyperreality and simulacra. He demonstrated that postmodernism is characterized by the formation of hyperreality—a complex of cultural elements that have no relation to reality. Hyperreality is filled with simulacra, simulations of reality rather than reality itself. Baudrillard described a simulacrum as anything intended to replace reality, such as certificates substituting for knowledge, photos on social media replacing genuine productive activities, and populism replacing justice. Postmodern culture is a complete hyperreality, filled with simulacra rather than authentic values.

Jean-François Lyotard (1924-1998) viewed postmodernism as an era of disillusionment with grand narratives. Human history and culture consist of various narratives (stories). In the past, humanity created grand narratives (socialism, capitalism, democracy, etc.). Despite the immense cost paid for these grand narratives, they did not make people happy. This disillusionment prompted a rejection of grand narratives. Humanity is now unwilling to invest all its energy into universal ideas and has fragmented into smaller groups, each with its own micro-narratives, values, and goals.