Philosophy of Being and Knowledge

Epistemology (Philosophy of Knowledge)

Skepticism

While rationalists, empiricists, and Kantian philosophers sought answers to how knowledge occurs, there were also thinkers who declared that knowledge is utterly impossible and does not occur at all. This epistemological stance is known as skepticism, derived from the Greek word "σκέψις" (skepsis), meaning "doubt." Skeptics are those who doubt everything and deny the existence or possibility of knowing objective truth. Early theories of skepticism emerged in ancient Greek philosophy during the era of Athenian democracy. In a democratic government, a successful political career could be achieved by those who were skilled in persuasion. Thus, oratory became the highest value. Unscrupulous politicians realized that the general public could be swayed even by falsehoods, as long as they were presented persuasively. As individuals sought environments to develop these skills, the Sophists emerged as a school that provided training in rhetoric and presentation, while also developing a specific philosophical justification for their practice. They claimed that truth does not exist; if it did, it would be impossible to know it; and if it were possible to know it, it would be impossible to express it in words. Therefore, it is not worth seeking. Truth for each person is what is beneficial to them at that moment.

A second wave of skepticism emerged during the Hellenistic period, a time when Greeks, thanks to Alexander's wars, encountered new worlds. Previously, Greeks mostly remained within their own city-states and had limited exposure to other cultures. Travelers were a rarity. When Alexander began his campaigns against the Persians, Greek migration to the Near East became common. The encounter with diverse cultures astonished the Greeks. If they had once believed that only their own culture was true and all others were barbaric, they now saw that some Near Eastern cultures surpassed their own. The question arose as to which culture was truly authentic. Two answers emerged: each culture contains elements of truth, but none possess it fully; or every culture is a human creation, and truth does not exist at all. The latter response became the basis of Hellenistic skepticism.

Hellenistic skeptical views developed within two philosophical schools. The founder of ancient skepticism was Pyrrho of Elis, who died around 275 BCE. Accompanying Alexander’s army, Pyrrho visited many countries in the Near East, and their cultural diversity so impressed him that he denied any objectivity of truth. For Pyrrho, truth did not exist, and this belief had practical implications: there was nothing to fight for or defend, no moral or natural laws. These views also permeated Plato’s Academy after his death. Under the leadership of Arcesilaus (265-241 BCE), Lacydes (241-225 BCE), Evander (225-167 BCE), and Hegesinus (167-165 BCE), early Platonists shifted from Platonic rationalism to Pyrrhonian skepticism.

During the Middle Ages, skepticism was largely impossible, as all European philosophers of the time were Christians who acknowledged the objective truth of God's existence. However, elements of skepticism can still be found in the medieval period:

• Christian theologians had mixed feelings towards skepticism. Most regarded it as evil, but some argued that it arose through divine allowance to undermine pagan wisdom.
• In medieval philosophy, the theory of double truth emerged. This theory had two interpretations. Most thinkers asserted that God reveals Himself to people in two ways: through revelation and through nature. However, these two truths are identical, as they express the same God. Some philosophers argued that truth could only be known through philosophy, a path not accessible to everyone. For those unable to access philosophy, a simplified version—religion—was offered. This position was articulated by the Arab philosopher Averroes (1126-1198), who expressed doubt about the truth of popular beliefs.

Thus, while there were no explicit skeptics in medieval philosophy, medieval philosophers engaged with the works of skeptics. Skeptical glimpses reappeared during the Renaissance. Philosophers of this period sought to revive ancient philosophy, and thus followers of all ancient thought traditions emerged. Skepticism became the foundation of Michel de Montaigne’s (1533-1592) philosophical reflections. He believed that the pursuit of truth was impossible and therefore, philosophers should focus on ethics, in which Montaigne advocated for the art of living, or pleasure.

In the modern era, especially in France, skepticism evolved from a theory of knowledge into a method. The method upon which René Descartes built his philosophy is known as methodical skepticism. Descartes was not a skeptic but a rationalist. However, he began his reasoning with doubt. Thus, methodical skepticism is a method that led Descartes from doubt to the acknowledgment of the possibility of certain knowledge. Elements of skepticism are also present in the philosophy of David Hume, who argued that the foundation of all human knowledge is habit. Habit underpins morality, law, religion, knowledge, and more. However, habit is not a guarantee of truth. People consider what is familiar to them as true, rather than what is truly so. Since there is no certainty of the truth of knowledge, it is permissible to doubt the possibility of knowing truth.

In conclusion, modern philosophy did not exhibit skepticism as clearly as in ancient philosophy, but philosophers of this era actively employed the method of doubt in constructing their epistemological theories. Such methodological skepticism is also present in 20th and 21st-century philosophy, but the return to pure skepticism, as seen in Antiquity, has not occurred in the history of philosophy. This is natural, as skepticism, which doubts the possibility of knowing truth, implies that any philosophical or scientific theory loses its validity if truth is unknowable. The greatest problem of skepticism is its internal contradiction: if truth does not exist or cannot be known, there is no basis for believing skeptics.