Philosophy of Being and Knowledge

Philosophy of Science

Ludwik Fleck's Doctrine of Thought Styles

In the first half of the 20th century, the Lviv philosopher and bacteriologist Ludwik Fleck (1897-1961) developed an original concept of science. He noted that positivist views on the nature of science are based on physics. In contrast, different patterns govern medicine, the field in which Fleck worked. By rejecting the belief that physics is the model science with the most refined methods and incorporating all fields of knowledge into the analysis, one discovers that science operates under different laws than those described by positivists. Fleck sought universal laws applicable to all sciences. He did not consider science to be a unique form of knowledge but rather a means to explain reality, akin to any other form of cognition. Every individual possesses some conception of reality: they may believe in certain theories in chemistry, physics, or medicine, hold specific religious beliefs, or have notions of beauty and goodness. Fleck termed these conceptions "thought styles." Each person simultaneously operates with various thought styles across different domains of knowledge.

Since a single thought style characterizes the worldview of various individuals, adherents of the same style form a community, which Fleck referred to as a "thought collective." A thought style is not a result of cognitive activity but a precondition for it. Fleck emphasized that all human knowledge can be divided into "cognized" and "learned." Cognized knowledge is that which a person discovers for the first time. Such knowledge can only be produced by genius scientists who enrich the scientific worldview. All other knowledge is learned because individuals acquire it through education. Even the most meticulous observation will not yield new knowledge without the educational process. Fleck used the example of a microscope: when a student first looks through a microscope, they see only chaos; to see bacteria through the microscope, they need a teacher to show them what they should see. Thus, the source of the student's knowledge is not reality but the teacher, who does not present their own knowledge but rather imparts a particular thought style, opening the gates to the collective.

In every thought collective, two groups can be distinguished: the esoteric circle, consisting of individuals who shape the thought style, prominent scientists who make discoveries, and the exoteric circle, comprising all who think in that style but do not form its foundations. Although individuals simultaneously belong to various thought collectives (e.g., as a Muslim, accepting Newton's theory of universal gravitation, and using evidence-based medicine), most do not belong to the esoteric circle in any of these collectives. Even if someone is part of the esoteric circle in one thought collective, they belong to exoteric circles in others.

Thus, according to Fleck, science is a specific style of thinking that unites people into thought collectives and shapes their understanding of reality.