Philosophy of Being and Knowledge

Philosophy of Language

Definition

Language is an intrinsic attribute of humanity, distinguishing individuals from all inorganic and organic nature and incorporating them into the spiritual realm. Humans have expressed themselves through language since its inception, yet contemplation of the nature of language began only recently. Philosophical reflection on language started when people began to recognize that alongside their native language, there existed other languages. As strange as it may sound, merely hearing that other peoples speak differently was insufficient for such awareness. Every ancient culture regarded only its own language as worthy of attention, dismissing foreign languages as mere sounds unworthy of consideration. For instance, the ancient Greeks referred to all other peoples as barbarians, meaning those incapable of speech, only producing sounds akin to those of animals. Ancient Greeks did not study foreign languages, considering the effort to learn barbarian dialects a degradation of dignity. The ancient Romans held similar views on language. Knowledge of foreign languages among Romans was rare, though educated individuals, often clergy, frequently knew Greek. In the Middle Ages, Latin served as the language of worship, science, and international relations. Monasteries, diocesan curias, scriptoria, and universities exclusively used Latin. When the term "language" (Latin: lingua) was employed, it was understood to mean Latin, as other European languages of the time were considered mere dialects spoken by unrefined commoners.

In both Antiquity and the Middle Ages, language received considerable attention in education, yet the approach to its study was conditioned by how it was perceived. The Greeks studied exclusively Greek, focusing on grammar and rhetoric. Similarly, in the Middle Ages, only Latin was studied, and the educated class, primarily the clergy, was expected to possess an excellent command of it. Everyone was expected to be able to deliver speeches, compose poetry, and quote classical texts in Latin. The composition of poetry was part of the curriculum. However, philosophical inquiry into language or the construction of language theory was not pertinent.

The situation began to change in the early Modern period. Although Latin remained the language of science for several more centuries, writers began using national languages. This was most active in Italy. In 1612, Francesco Petrarca compiled the first Italian dictionary, and together with Dante Alighieri and Giovanni Boccaccio, he became a founding figure of literary Italian. Nevertheless, even the development of national languages did not prompt philosophers to analyze language. European languages evolved within a unified cultural space and thus share similar forms of expression.

A notable example of this approach is the "General and Rational Grammar of Port-Royal." In 1660, two Catholic priests from the Port-Royal monastery in France, Antoine Arnauld (1612-1694) and Claude Lancelot (1615-1695), published a book that became the most renowned linguistic study of the 17th century. The authors attempted to compare the grammars of different languages and demonstrate that all languages are founded on the same rational principles. Since they analyzed only Western European languages with similar grammars, they found many parallels. Based on this, they concluded that the grammars of all languages are similar, as they all rest on principles of reason, which are unified and universal for all.

The situation changed after the great geographical discoveries. Missionaries traveled to the New World to preach Christianity to indigenous peoples. For their mission to succeed, it was essential to master the local languages and translate the Bible into them. Most African and American languages lacked writing systems. Consequently, Christian missionaries created writing systems for these languages, typically based on the Latin alphabet. They began compiling textbooks and dictionaries for these languages. This required a deep understanding of languages and comparison with European ones. Studying the languages of indigenous peoples in Africa and America revealed that these languages have different forms of expression compared to European languages, and this is associated with different forms of worldview.

This sparked great interest among European scholars, leading to diverse studies of languages using comparative analysis. It became evident that languages developed historically like a tree: from a single root, various languages evolve, some languages die out like withering branches, but new languages emerge. Comparative linguistics enabled the classification of languages into groups (e.g., Slavic languages) and families (e.g., Indo-European language family). Today, there are about 5,000 languages in the world, grouped into 152 language families. A language family is characterized by all its languages descending from a common ancestor. For example, all Indo-European languages originate from Sanskrit (an ancient language of India). Language classification became possible through the application of two types of comparative linguistics: diachronic and synchronic. Diachronic linguistics studies language by comparing its states at different times, e.g., analyzing changes in the Ukrainian language from the 10th to the 21st century. The term "diachrony" comes from the Greek words "δια" (through) and "χρόνος" (time). Synchronic linguistics studies language by comparing it with other languages at a particular stage of their development, e.g., Ukrainian, Polish, and Slovak at a single point in time. The term "synchrony" comes from the Greek words "συν" (together) and "χρόνος" (time). Diachronic and synchronic linguistics have allowed for the exploration of language development and branching throughout history.

A meticulous analysis of the world's languages, especially those that had never interacted with Europeans before the great geographical discoveries, revealed another crucial fact: speech and thought are interconnected. Language is not merely a means of expressing thoughts; without language, thought is impossible. Researchers observed that thought is essentially speech within oneself. It is impossible to think without employing language, and thus thought occurs within the boundaries set by language. Humans think as they speak, rather than speak as they think. Awareness of this fact led scholars to focus on aspects of language previously overlooked. Language began to be seen not only as a means of communication and information transfer but primarily as the foundation of thought, the formation of worldview, national culture, and expression of the spirit of the people. These issues transcend traditional linguistics, becoming the subject of the philosophy of language, initiated by linguists and philosophers in the late 18th century. The subject of the philosophy of language is language itself, with the goal of defining its essence. However, throughout the history of linguistic philosophy, its emphases have shifted: from language as the spirit of the people in Humboldt's and Weisgerber's concepts to the role of language as a means of scientific knowledge of the world in analytic philosophy. Common to all philosophical concepts of language, however different they may be, is the recognition of the leading role of language in cognition, thought, worldview formation, culture, and more.