Humanity and Its Being as an Object of Philosophical Understanding

The Development of Philosophical Conceptions of Humanity

Humanity is the subject of study across numerous sciences; a variety of specific disciplines—such as pedagogy, psychology, physiology, medicine, and anthropology—examine distinct facets of human existence. Philosophy, however, is tasked with integrating this body of knowledge to formulate a holistic vision of humanity. The entire history of philosophy has been marked by attempts to answer questions such as: What is humanity's place in the world? What is its origin, who is it in essence, and who can it become? What ideals should it aspire to, what goals should it pursue, and what means should it employ to achieve these? Is there meaning in human life? What is the relationship between inexorable necessity and individual freedom, as well as responsibility as a measure of freedom? The answers to these and other inquiries have varied across epochs, knowledge levels, worldviews, and affiliations with particular philosophical schools. Each historical era and culture has approached the question of human nature in its own way, with priorities and aspects of understanding this issue constantly evolving. Philosophical thought has at times "dissolved" humanity within nature and society, and at others, regarded it as a self-sufficient entity, opposing it to the natural and social world.

As you study the fundamental historical stages of cultural and philosophical development, you have already encountered various conceptions of humanity; thus, we shall limit ourselves to a brief overview of the diversity of philosophical models concerning it.

In Ancient India, humanity was conceived as a part of the world soul. There was no significant distinction between humans and other living beings (plants, animals); all were seen as existing within the wheel of reincarnation and destined to suffer, yet humanity sought liberation from this cycle. The path to this liberation lay in detachment from earthly matters and in the union of the human soul with the cosmic spiritual principle. In Chinese philosophy, humanity is defined as a being whose actions are guided by internal motives, but the decree of Heaven plays a decisive role in its life. Humanity must learn to perceive and understand this law and structure its behavior in accordance with the will of Heaven.

In the ancient era, the predominant idea was a cosmocentric one, in which humanity was thought of as a part of the cosmos, a "small world," a microcosm reflecting and symbolizing the universe, the macrocosm. Over time, a trend towards anthropocentrism emerged. The ancient philosopher Empedocles noted, "Humanity has always been, is, and will be the most interesting phenomenon for humanity," a sentiment that remains relevant today. Beginning with the Sophists and Socrates, a new culture emerged that demanded self-knowledge, considering humanity the "measure of all things." Aristotle defined humanity as a political animal endowed with reason, which cannot exist outside of society. As the ancient polis gradually disintegrated, philosophical reflections shifted focus—found in Epicurus, Stoicism, and Skepticism—toward the individual, the ethical dimension of existence, and the pursuit of individual happiness.

During the Middle Ages, Christian philosophy significantly transformed the view of humanity, which was considered a creation of God, made in His image and likeness. The primary characteristic of humanity became not reason but the "heart," embodying love, faith, and hope. The purpose of earthly life was seen as the salvation of the soul for eternal life beyond the earthly realm, in unity with God. The philosophy of the Renaissance, which succeeded medieval philosophy and was characterized by anthropocentrism, regarded humanity as an autonomous being endowed with limitless creative potential.

In modern philosophy, two tendencies emerged regarding the understanding of humanity. On one hand, philosophers sought to explain the essence of humanity from the perspective of natural science, often drawing direct analogies between humans and machines or between humans and animals. On the other hand, humanity's specific quality was identified in reason, in thought that reigns over passions. According to René Descartes, reason is the universal means of perceiving the world, guiding all cognitive, practical, and communicative actions of humanity. Thus, this period produced examples of naturalistic research into the essence of humanity, but its main achievement was the acknowledgment of the autonomy of human reason in understanding its own essence.

In classical German philosophy, the spiritual essence of humanity was hypertrophied, with a focus on the rational, particularly evident in Hegel’s philosophy, where he viewed humanity as the bearer of a universal spirit, a subject of spiritual activity that creates the world of culture. However, for Kant, humanity is a dualistic being, belonging to both the world of nature, where necessity prevails, and the world of freedom, which defines its morality. Kant asserted that the study of humanity is the primary task of philosophy. Feuerbach, developing the anthropological principle of philosophy, viewed humanity primarily as a sensual and corporeal being, upon which the "temple of reason" is constructed.

In Marxism, labor activity is paramount in understanding humanity, through which the world of material and spiritual culture is created, and humanity itself is shaped by culture. By absolutizing social existence, Marxism proclaims that society determines the properties of the individual.

In the irrationalist concepts of the 19th and early 20th centuries, humanity's non-rational abilities and forces—such as feelings and will—are seen as dominant. Nietzsche, for instance, characterized humanity as a play of life forces and drives, rather than consciousness and reason; Freud and Freudianism similarly elevate the unconscious above the conscious, perceiving it as the source of religion, culture, and art.

In the 20th century, philosophical thought underwent a new turn towards the problem of humanity. This theme was particularly scrutinized in existentialism and philosophical anthropology. In existentialist philosophy, the category of existence serves as the starting point for constructing a conception of humanity. Individuals choose and realize their life projects, yet this choice is accompanied by anxiety and responsibility for the correctness of their actions. In the 1920s, philosophical anthropology emerged as a specific direction within philosophical thought, founded by Max Scheler and Helmuth Plessner. Their task was to create a comprehensive understanding of humanity based on the data from specialized, distinct sciences—biology, physiology, psychology, sociology, and so forth.

In Ukrainian philosophy, anthropological issues hold a significant place within the existential-oriented philosophy of Hryhorii Skovoroda, which presents the full variety of human thoughts and feelings, emphasizing the uniqueness of personal existence. According to his teachings, the essence of humanity lies not so much in theoretical cognitive abilities as in the emotional-volitional principle—the heart— from which thought, aspiration, and feeling arise.

In summation of the historical and philosophical analysis of the phenomenon of humanity, several conclusions can be drawn. First, despite the efforts of thinkers from various historical epochs, humanity remains a mystery, prompting numerous theories regarding its origin, essence, and purpose. Second, humanity is the only being capable of transcending its own limits, engaging in self-analysis, viewing itself from an external perspective, and editing its behavior and attitude toward the world: it is both the director and the actor, the architect and the judge. Third, humanity is a boundary creature: it is born of nature, owes its formation to society, and its development relies solely on itself.