Philosophy of the 20th and 21st Centuries

Philosophical Hermeneutics

Philosophical hermeneutics represents a key aspect of the linguistic turn, wherein language is seen not merely as a tool for expressing thoughts and organizing interactions, but as a fundamental phenomenon that imparts meaning to things and ideas. This ontologization of language positions it as primary and self-sufficient, preceding existence itself. Broadly, hermeneutics is the art of interpreting texts and deals with the various relational dynamics between speaker and listener, language and world. It has ancient roots, evolving from biblical exegesis in the Middle Ages to a significant component of the philosophies of Friedrich Schleiermacher, Wilhelm Dilthey, and, in the 20th century, Martin Buber and Mikhail Bakhtin. Martin Heidegger introduced the concept of the "hermeneutic circle," suggesting that understanding the world conceptually requires prior familiarity with it, whether theoretical or practical. Expanding on Heidegger’s ideas, Hans-Georg Gadamer contrasted abstract scientific thinking with common sense, language, aesthetic taste, play, and erudition, developing a philosophy of understanding that encompasses human knowledge about the world and oneself. According to Gadamer, any manifestation of a text's meaning involves a pre-understanding that serves as the source of both truth and error. Readers approach texts with expectations that can be matched against the final outcome, creating a dynamic where the alignment of expectations with results forms a circle, refining the construction of sign, meaning, and its significance. The interpreter is not a mere mirror reflecting content but is shaped by prior experiences, expectations, and judgments, thus every interpreted text also reflects the author’s experience and cannot be read without resistance from the context.

Hermeneutics aims at constructing a multi-layered context, recognizing the mismatch between our own mentality and that of the author. Understanding emerges not from overcoming this gap, but from acknowledging it. Previous interpretations shape the life of a text, which may diverge from its original intention. Gadamer offers a broad definition of hermeneutics as the art of mutual understanding among people, social groups, parties, and regions, encompassing relations between the present and the past. For Gadamer, conversation is central to understanding, not just as a series of monologues where the most compelling speaker prevails, but as a dialogue that creates a shared field defining the essence of the matter.

The transition from textual to social science hermeneutics entails not only understanding human actions but also addressing pre-understanding. There is a similarity between understanding texts and social practices, especially in the dialectics of understanding and explanation. Paul Ricoeur highlights two key ideas within social hermeneutics: the idea of meaning and the idea of significance. While communication and interaction share a common foundation, comparing human behavior to texts is more complex. A text can be seen as a specific form of activity, but treating activity as text is challenging. Symbolism does not simply reside in minds but integrates into social actions. The meaning of a ritual cannot be understood without considering its place in the ritual order, and the significance of the ritual is understood through its cultural context. Ricoeur argues that a text or movement will have different meanings in various situations or cultures. This ability suggests that human activity, mediated symbolically, consists of internal interpretations of the action before it becomes accessible for external interpretation; in this sense, interpretation shapes the action. Ricoeur also emphasizes the unique role of the third person, especially in biographies or confessions, where they are not original.