Philosophy of Ancient Greece and Rome

Philosophical Schools and Trends in Ancient Rome

The transformation of Rome into a grand Mediterranean power had a profound impact on its ideological life. During the Roman Republic (c. 509 - 30 BCE), the Greek language gradually gained prominence among the Roman elite, bringing with it Greek education: knowledge of Greek literature became a mark of refinement, and proficiency in Greek became an essential attribute for any young Roman aspiring to public life. Rhetoric schools, predominantly taught by Greeks, emerged, and Hellenistic customs increasingly influenced the lifestyle and habits of the Roman nobility.

By the 1st century BCE, the Hellenistic influence on the upper echelons of Roman society was pervasive and became particularly defining in philosophy and art. Simultaneously, the Roman community actively engaged in creatively reworking Greek cultural achievements. During this period, Latin lyrical poetry emerged, oratory flourished, and the first prose works in classical Latin appeared. This was a significant and fascinating development, where two equally prominent but distinctly different nations came into close and dynamic interaction. The Romans created a magnificent state, focusing all aspects of life on the state's power, where individual talents were neither nurtured nor celebrated. Roman statehood was shaped not by the genius of individual personalities but by inherited wisdom that future senators absorbed from early childhood, accompanying their fathers to the Senate and listening to speeches there. While Rome did not cultivate all aspects of the human spirit, in Greece, the human spirit developed without limits or constraints.

With the introduction of the republican form of government in Rome, the need for recording officials and establishing chronological records arose. Over time, these records began to include descriptions of events—military actions, celestial signs, fires in Rome and its suburbs, fluctuations in bread prices, etc. Such records have been kept since 464 BCE, with occasional interruptions and inaccuracies. However, for the first 244 years of Roman history (starting from 753 BCE—the traditional date of Rome's founding according to the Roman historian Marcus Tullius Varro), precise chronological dates were scarce, mostly established from family histories inscribed on the walls of patrician houses. Thus, traditional Roman chronology began to take shape.

Throughout its history, the Roman state was a vast entity encompassing countless ethnicities, which had both positive and negative aspects. Roman conquests led to the unification of diverse tribes and peoples with their own mentalities and religions under Roman rule. In the process of cohabitation, the most striking features of the conquered peoples gradually faded, while a singular trait—empty cosmopolitanism—strengthened among both privileged and lower classes. This phenomenon was particularly evident in the cultural intermingling of Greece and Rome. Although such blending yielded significant results and laid the foundation for modern European civilization, it initially produced bitter outcomes in religion, philosophy, and literature.

Philosophy in Rome initially did not receive due recognition and support. This attitude was solidified after the first public appearance of a Greek philosopher—Carneades—in 155 BCE, who attempted to justify the Athenians' seizure of Oropus, a former Roman outpost. This provoked a negative reaction from the senator Marcus Porcius Cato the Elder, who accused Carneades of cynicism for justifying an evident injustice. Nevertheless, over time, interest in various philosophical schools such as the Epicureans and Stoics began to spread in Rome.

One of the most renowned thinkers of the Roman Republic period was the orator Marcus Tullius Cicero (106 - 43 BCE). The Latin word "Cicero" means "chickpea," making it more of a nickname than a surname, given to Cicero due to the round shape of his head. Cicero's literary legacy was extensive, including 58 judicial and political speeches, 19 treatises on rhetoric, politics, and philosophy, and approximately 800 letters. Cicero was not from a noble family and was considered part of the "new men" class. According to German historian Theodor Mommsen, Cicero's greatest contribution was not to politics or philosophy but to the development of classical Latin, purging it of vulgarisms and linguistic distortions and developing Latin philosophical terminology. He did not have his own philosophical concepts but presented the most prominent existing systems in an accessible manner.

Cicero developed his considerable oratorical talent through a deep acquaintance with Greek philosophy, literature, oratory theory, and law, using it solely for political purposes. Cicero was often seen as a rather opportunistic politician, changing his views, beliefs, and alliances according to social and situational demands. In speeches before the Roman citizens, he might praise Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus for their achievements or the military valor of his fellow countryman Gaius Marius; before senators, he would denounce these figures as demagogues and disturbers of social peace, while in personal letters, he would mock the folly of the people and senators. In one letter, he explicitly states that while there is conflict in Rome, one should side with those whom conscience dictates, but when civil war starts, one should align with the stronger side. In 64 BCE, Cicero became consul of Rome, but in 58 BCE, he was exiled.

Cicero is most renowned for his 14 angry speeches known as the "Philippics," directed against the first consul of the Republic, Mark Antony (similar to Demosthenes' speeches against King Philip of Macedon). These speeches were a direct cause of Cicero's murder on December 7, 43 BCE, in Formia. According to the historian Plutarch, Cicero’s murderer, the mercenary Herennius, displayed Cicero’s severed head and hands (which had written the "Philippics") in the Senate as ordered by Antony himself.

Among Cicero's contemporaries was the poet and philosopher Titus Lucretius Carus (99 - 55 BCE), a popularizer of Epicureanism in Rome. Lucretius is considered a representative of atomistic materialism in Roman philosophy, though he himself regarded as a successor and disciple of the Roman poet Quintus Ennius. Lucretius's didactic poem "On the Nature of Things" is the only work from his time to have fully survived and represents a systematic exposition of the materialist philosophy of his era. Although several manuscript copies of the poem have survived, the oldest dates only to the 9th century CE.

Little is known about Lucretius's life, but his work is filled with horror and disdain for the society in which he lived. The poet strives to alleviate his contemporaries' inner turmoil by dismantling their beliefs in the immortality of the soul, fear of death, and gods. He rejected any possibility of divine intervention in human affairs and sought natural explanations for the universe and human existence. Lucretius argued that everything consists of indivisible "elements," or atoms, which are neither created nor destroyed but combine according to natural laws to form all existing things. Atoms break apart in one place and come together in another, creating new worlds and new living beings. Thus, Lucretius viewed the universe as eternal and infinite. He wrote: "Things cannot arise from nothing and, once formed, Return to nothingness." Lucretius's position was based on the notion that after the earth formed from moisture and heat, plants emerged, followed by animals, and finally humans. Through experience, learning, and observation, humans discovered fire, built homes, and cultivated land. People began forming families and societies, enriching language, science, and crafts, and developing ideas about law and justice. However, with the rise of kings, the strongest and most audacious began to seize and divide lands, leading to wars and crimes.

Lucretius considers the soul to be a material formation—a special amalgamation of air and heat. It pervades the entire body and is created through the work of the finest and smallest atoms. Lucretius addresses the problem of knowledge and concludes that our senses are the primary intermediaries between humans and nature. He believes that everyone should live solely for earthly joy, with happiness being the ultimate goal of human existence:

“Is it not clear That nature desires only one thing and demands just this: That the body should feel no pain, and thoughts find rest In pleasant sensations, far from sorrow and fear?”

Contemporaries held Lucretius in high regard, yet for Roman society, he was already a figure of the past. He had no disciples or followers, as newer, often decadent poetic forms emerged. Epicureanism persisted in Roman society until the early 4th century CE. However, when Christianity became the official state religion in Rome in 313 CE, a relentless and merciless campaign against Epicureanism and Lucretius' ideas ensued, eventually leading to the decline of this philosophical school. In its later phase, Epicureanism became pessimistic, emphasizing the futility of existence. "While I lived, I enjoyed; now I am dust," was a common Epicurean epitaph. Even on festive cups, skeletons of Alexander the Great or Socrates were engraved, serving as reminders of the fleeting nature of glory and wisdom, and the equality of death.

After Julius Caesar's assassination on March 15, 44 BCE, the Roman Republic plunged into a period of civil wars, centered around the personal rivalry between Mark Antony and the young nephew of the deceased Caesar, Gaius Octavius, who, with Cicero’s efforts, was recognized by the Senate as Caesar’s successor under the name Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian. The war, lasting nearly thirteen years, ended in 30 BCE with the deaths of Antony and his wife, the Egyptian queen Cleopatra, and the fall of the Roman Republic. In 29 BCE, Octavian returned to Rome, where he was later granted the title of emperor by the Senate and became known as Augustus, founding the Julio-Claudian dynasty (27 BCE - 69 CE).

Despite the tumultuous internal and external political upheavals that accompanied the Julio-Claudian rule, cultural life continued uninterrupted, with advancements in architecture, painting, drama, and poetry. The most prominent philosopher of this period was the Stoic Lucius Annaeus Seneca (4 BCE - 65 CE). Born in Corduba (Spain) to the renowned rhetor Seneca the Elder, Seneca received an excellent education in philosophy and rhetoric in Rome. During the reigns of emperors Tiberius and Caligula in the 30s CE, Seneca began his political career in the Senate. After Caligula’s assassination in 41 CE, the new emperor Claudius exiled Seneca to the island of Corsica, where he remained until 49 CE, when Claudius' wife Agrippina recalled him to Rome to serve as the tutor to her son Nero. Following Claudius’ poisoning by Agrippina in 54 CE, Seneca, then Nero’s tutor, took control of the empire and effectively ruled for five years. In 56 CE, Seneca became consul, but his influence over Nero waned over time. By 62 CE, he withdrew from political life, distributed part of his wealth to the poor, and left the imperial palace. However, this act did not prevent Nero from recalling him. After the exposure of a conspiracy against Nero in 65 CE, led by Calpurnius Piso, Seneca was implicated and ordered to commit suicide by the emperor, which he did in April 65 CE along with his nephew, the epic poet Lucan.

As a Stoic, Seneca was primarily concerned with the issues of virtue, moral self-improvement, controlling passions, and disdain for death and wealth. His writings include treatises such as "On the Happy Life," "On Clemency," "On the Steadfastness of the Philosopher," ten tragedies, and numerous letters. In his works, Seneca remained a moral philosopher. In literature, he is considered the creator of the "new style," which was prevalent in the 1st century CE and characterized by tension, pathos, colorful metaphors, and sharp, concise aphorisms. Almost all of his works are dedicated to ethical issues, except for the treatise "Natural Questions."

Stoicism, which Seneca adhered to, was the most widespread philosophical school in Rome and the only one to acquire a new resonance during the Roman period, unlike its Greek counterpart. The Stoics of the new era assigned a fundamental role to the soul, viewing physics as entirely subordinated to it.

Seneca believed that everything in the world is governed by the power of strict necessity (Ananke in Greek philosophy). In ethics, he advocated living in harmony with nature (living happily means living in harmony with nature) and the principle of human submission to fate. In his ethical treatises, Seneca systematizes both personal experience and societal relations in contemporary Rome. The curtailing of civil liberties and the decline of republican values during the empire formed his doubts about the future of the state. He writes: “I divide life into three periods: the past, the present, and the future. Of these, the period we live in is the shortest; that which we will live in is uncertain, and only that which we have lived is clear, for it is the most enduring, not affected by fate, and no one can reclaim it.”

Seneca disdained the pursuit of wealth, luxury, and worldly honors: “The higher one climbs, the closer one is to falling. The life of one who acquires with great effort what he will have to defend with even greater effort is short and poor.” Yet Seneca himself used his position to achieve power and privileges. When criticized for this, he responded: “All philosophers speak not of how they themselves live but of how one should live. I speak of virtues, not my own; I fight against vices, and that means against my own as well: when I overcome them, I will live as one should.”

Seneca’s sense of life revolved around achieving absolute inner tranquility. One of the important prerequisites for this, he believed, was overcoming the fear of death. Life can only be deemed worthy if it is dedicated to personal improvement. In a letter to his friend Lucilius, he writes: “Claim yourself for yourself, preserve and accumulate the time that was previously taken and stolen from you, time that passed in vain... do not waste even an hour. If you hold today’s day in your hands, you will be less dependent on tomorrow, and if you keep postponing, your whole life will slip away. Everything we have, Lucilius, is foreign; only time is ours.”

Throughout the 1st and 2nd centuries CE, Athens remained the principal philosophical center of the Roman Empire. Among the plebeians, wandering philosophers—the Cynics—gained great popularity with their sharp criticism of the emperor and the aristocracy. This led Emperor Vespasian to order the expulsion of all philosophers and astrologers from Rome in 71 CE.

In the 2nd century CE, one of the most renowned philosophers was the Stoic emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (121 - 180 CE). His reign (161 - 180 CE) was marked by a series of economic and social upheavals, including wars with Germanic tribes in what is now Europe. During one such campaign against the Marcomanni in 180 CE, Marcus Aurelius contracted a plague that ravaged the Roman army and died at the fortress of Vindobona (modern Vienna). After his tragic death, a treatise titled "Meditations," written by Marcus Aurelius in the final years of his life, was found among his personal papers and is considered one of the most significant Stoic philosophical works.

The first thing that strikes one upon reading Marcus Aurelius’s work is the pervasive pessimistic tone, a sense of despair observable in almost every line of the book. This mood was likely influenced by the prevailing internal state of the Roman elite, who were unwilling to change the negative and catastrophic situation in Rome. Consequently, they saw Stoic ethics as a means of moral rejuvenation for society. "The only thing within a person’s control is their own thoughts," wrote Marcus Aurelius. He viewed the external world as a phenomenon in constant flux and never remaining static. The primary goal of human aspirations should be to achieve a state of inner peace and perfection, that is, to align with “the rational laws of nature in harmony with human nature.” Marcus Aurelius advised "maintaining tranquility of thought amidst whatever comes from outside, and fairness in everything that is executed by one’s own discretion, meaning to direct one’s desires and actions toward the common good, as their essence is to be in agreement with oneself."

Marcus Aurelius is considered the last representative of ancient Stoicism, and with him, this philosophical direction came to an end. His works exhibit some features of mysticism, closely associated with the decline of Roman society. The Stoic teachings, emphasizing the necessity to "subdue oneself" (to the absolute reason—Logos—God), influenced the formation of early Christianity in Rome in several ways.

During Marcus Aurelius’s time, the life and work of one of antiquity’s most esteemed physicians, Claudius Galen (circa 120 - 200 or 210 CE), are also noteworthy. Born in Pergamum (modern Turkey), Galen studied the works of Aristotle and Plato but became renowned primarily as a physician. After a long journey and study in Smyrna, Corinth, and Alexandria, Galen returned to Pergamum and became a physician at the gladiator school, where he actively engaged in surgical practice. This was particularly significant given that dissection of the human body was considered blasphemous at the time, so Galen could only study human anatomy on slain or wounded gladiators and criminals.

After relocating to Rome, Galen became the personal physician to Emperor Marcus Aurelius and his son Commodus. It was here, at the Temple of Peace, that Galen established an anatomical school and pioneered the method of vivisection on animals, providing detailed descriptions of approximately 300 muscles in the human body. By severing the spinal cord transversely, Galen demonstrated the loss of sensation in all parts of the body located below the line of incision.

Galen's philosophical views were grounded in Peripatetic thought, but he remained largely outside traditional philosophical systems, displaying a more eclectic approach. He believed in a singular, creator God, and his scientific work was permeated by a recognition of the divine nature of all creation, especially humanity. This belief is exemplified in his detailed description of the human hand, with all its bones, muscles, and vessels. Yet, he also introduced confusion by attempting to map the muscle system of a monkey onto the human skeleton.

Another significant philosophical school in Roman antiquity was skepticism. Skeptic philosophers asserted that humans could not make definitive claims about reality based on direct sensory experience. They developed a methodology of skeptical doubt, critically assessing the fundamental concepts of contemporary knowledge. This critique extended beyond philosophical notions to include mathematics, rhetoric, astronomy, grammar, and more. Skepticism even questioned the existence of gods, which led some skeptics towards atheism.

The most notable representative of Roman skepticism in the 2nd century CE was the Syrian Lucian of Samosata (circa 120 - 180 CE). Although a Roman citizen, Lucian spent much of his life in Athens. In his brief treatises, often written in dialogue form ("The Dialogues of the Gods," "The Dialogues of the Dead"), Lucian satirized human superstitions and religious fanaticism. Overall, Roman skepticism reflected the growing crisis of Roman society. Skeptics’ examination of contradictions in other philosophical doctrines led them to a detailed study of the history of philosophy, though this school itself lost the vital spiritual essence that once elevated ancient philosophical thought to its heights. Skepticism contained more direct rejections than constructive methodological critique.

The general crisis of Roman society in the 3rd century CE manifested not only in economics and politics but also in culture and ideology. The struggle between religious and philosophical currents during this period highlighted the pressing need to address the deteriorating living conditions, instability, and constant wars. Only religion and philosophy seemed capable of providing some answers to these urgent questions. However, the overall situation led to a pessimistic character in religious and philosophical currents in 3rd-century Rome.

The pursuit of knowledge about the material world took a backseat as philosophers of this era focused primarily on otherworldly realms, forces purportedly governing the human world, the problem of sin, and purification. Science fell into decline, and skeptical assertions about the impossibility of human knowledge of the external world took precedence. The skeptic philosopher Sextus Empiricus (late 2nd - early 3rd century CE) argued that the world could not exist outside human imagination and that real life was merely a collection of sensory impressions.

During this time, the last major non-Christian philosophical system emerged: Neoplatonism. The founder of this school was Plotinus (circa 204/205 - 269/270), a student of the Platonist Ammonius. From 244 CE, Plotinus lived in Rome, where he established his own philosophical school and gave public lectures. His lectures were attended by the highest intellectual circles of the time, including senators and Emperor Gallienus (259 - 268 CE). Contemporary accounts suggest that after attending these lectures, Gallienus expressed a desire to create a city of philosophers, Plato's ideal republic.

Like many thinkers of his time, Plotinus considered the questions of good and evil, God and the world, and the purpose and meaning of human life to be of utmost importance. As a consistent idealist, Plotinus associated evil with matter and held humans in contempt, delving deeply into mysticism, astrology, and magic.

Plotinus identified the origin of all things as the unknowable Supreme Good, which he equated with light. This Good pervades everything and unifies the world into a cohesive, interconnected whole. Below the Supreme Good are the Intellect (Nous) and the Soul, which include the minds and souls of gods, humans, and animals. As the Supreme Light passes through the Intellect and the Soul, it gradually dims and eventually merges with matter. Thus, Plotinus viewed the main task of humans as merging with the Supreme Good through the refinement of their own souls and uncovering the latent light within them. The soul's journey involves ascending from the sensory world to unite with the One in ecstatic union. This Platonic triad of "Good - Intellect - Soul" later became the theoretical foundation for interpreting the Holy Trinity in early Christianity.

Plotinus opposed extreme asceticism, believing that a philosopher should live within society, fulfill their duties, and never forget that they are merely a part of a greater, more perfect whole. According to Plotinus, humans are actors in the drama of life, and he scorned those who, resigning themselves, relied on the will of the gods or the coming of a world savior while complaining about their own misfortunes. He argued that when people resemble timid sheep, they are preyed upon by stronger wolves—wealthy and tyrannical rulers. Plotinus did not reject religion but advocated interacting with the gods through precise formulas. He viewed the world as eternal and beautiful, reflecting the eternal and beautiful nature of its primary cause.

After Gallienus’s death, Emperor Aurelian began persecuting Plotinus's school, forcing him to leave Rome. Several of Plotinus's followers, including his close friend, the philosopher Longinus, were executed. Following Plotinus's death, his student Porphyry (circa 233 - circa 304 CE), a Syrian, continued to develop Neoplatonic thought. Porphyry published 54 manuscripts of Plotinus's works, divided into six books of nine treatises each, titled "Enneads." However, without his mentor, Porphyry quickly began to deviate from the essence of Plotinus's teachings. He no longer embraced the optimistic view of the world and the teacher's calls for active societal engagement. Porphyry believed that the philosopher should retreat from the crowd into the desert. From this time, ascetic ideals, magic, astrology, and demonology began to play a leading role in Neoplatonism. These principles were further solidified by Porphyry’s student, Iamblichus of Chalcis (circa 280 - circa 330 CE), who emphasized the practical and cultic aspects of philosophy: prophecies, incantations, and ecstatic journeys to the afterlife. Consequently, late Neoplatonism gradually merged with the religious and philosophical currents that Plotinus himself had opposed.

The final chapter of Roman Neoplatonism was written by Boethius Anicius Manlius Severinus (480 - 524 CE). Later known as "the last of the Romans and the first of the scholastics," Boethius indeed turned the last page of the grand spiritual culture of Roman civilization and opened a new medieval chapter.

Boethius came from a wealthy and noble family, received a fine education, and rapidly advanced in the court of the Ostrogothic King Theodoric. However, he was arrested and executed due to a treacherous accusation.

Boethius’s most notable and significant work is "The Consolation of Philosophy," written while he was in prison. It takes the form of a poem, in which the philosopher outlines the core principles of his philosophical views.

In discussing the world as a unified, harmonious whole where three principles—Fate, Wisdom, and Love—interact, Boethius seeks to determine the place of humanity within the grand scheme of things. He viewed humans as the highest tier in the hierarchy of living beings on Earth, emphasizing that the human body belongs to the material (lower) world, while the soul and intellect strive upwards, seeking eternal truth. When humans live in a world where goodness is realized, they align themselves with it.

In his examination of logic as a science dealing with judgments, Boethius conveyed to the Middle Ages the distinction between written, spoken, and intellectual judgments. Boethius is also associated with formulating the problem of universals (general concepts), which became a significant issue in scholastic philosophy. The problem of universals traces back to Plato and Aristotle, and Boethius, in addressing this issue, followed the path of Aristotle. He argued that it is impossible to grant substantial status to the ideas of genus and species, as they do not exist individually and thus cannot be sensory substances. For Boethius, universals always remain mere terms and concepts of thought, which, while corresponding to reality, lack real sensory status. Consequently, from a Stoic perspective, Boethius contrasted only things and words, without distinguishing between words and concepts.