Philosophy of Ancient China and Ancient India

General Characteristics of Ancient Chinese Philosophy

Chinese philosophy presents a distinctive worldview with unique methods of interpretation. Characteristic features of most Chinese philosophical systems include a holistic view of the cosmos, anthropocentrism, and a pursuit of harmony. Additionally, a notable focus on social and political issues is prevalent in Chinese thought.

Traditional Chinese philosophy began to take shape around the first millennium BCE and continues to evolve, absorbing influences from Indian Buddhism to modern European phenomenology. A hallmark of Chinese philosophy is its conception of a fundamental structural homogeneity in natural and social processes, cosmogenesis, and history. The recognition of a similarity between human beings and the world around them, the microcosm and macrocosm, has been a constant component of the Chinese worldview. The conceptual framework of traditional Chinese philosophy is relatively small, but each concept can be applied across multiple domains. Key concepts include:

• Dao - The Way
• Ren - Humanity
• De - Virtue

Furthermore, an important characteristic of Chinese philosophy is its direct influence by traditional views on the structure of time. The cyclical nature of time is reflected in the calendar and the agricultural year. Additionally, Chinese philosophy integrates mythological ideas about the inevitable cycles of growth and decay and the primordial harmony of the world.

Classical Chinese philosophy traditionally encompasses teachings from the Chunqiu (8th-5th centuries BCE) and the Zhanguo (5th-3rd centuries BCE) periods, and occasionally includes the philosophy of the Western Han Dynasty. During this era, the primary conceptual framework was developed, which would later be utilized by Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism from the medieval period to the present. The Han Dynasty also saw the formalization of synthesized teachings that became foundational for subsequent philosophical doctrines.

At the origins of Chinese culture and philosophy stand two thinkers, still widely recognized in China today: Confucius (Kongzi) and Laozi. They lived roughly at the same time (6th-5th centuries BCE). The archetype of the wandering philosopher seeking to apply their doctrines to the rulers of various lands was typical of this era. Confucius (551-479 BCE) was one such philosopher. His work, "Lunyu" (Analects), is a collection of his conversations with disciples, compiled after his death.

For Confucius, the primary virtue guiding the behavior of a noble person (junzi) is Ren (humanity). He saw humanity as encompassing all virtues and thus holding the highest status. Absolute wisdom could surpass humanity, but no virtue was higher. A crucial task for a person, especially one bearing ancient cultural and moral values, is to preserve traditions passed down through generations. This preservation is achieved through learning and adhering to rituals. Strict observance of ritual (li), which applies to all members of society, is seen as essential for maintaining the continuity of cultural tradition. A true junzi despises wealth and material gain, acting with thoughtfulness and integrity even in anger. They should avoid youthful passions, gossip in maturity, and vanity in old age. A junzi dedicates themselves to serving others and seeking truth, and only such a person, according to Confucius, can peacefully face death upon realizing truth.

Confucius innovated by placing ancestor worship at the core of his ethical theory, intertwining respect for parents with respect for ancestors as the source of humanity. A society becomes strong when all its members are considered family. Confucius emphasized that familial relationships are inherently hierarchical and demand obedience, a structure mirrored in state relations. Therefore, the ruler should be seen as a father, with the state resembling a large family and the family a small state. According to Confucius, an ideal society should be well-ordered and hierarchically structured both socially and temporally, so that new generations, as they pass into the past, surpass their descendants and receive appropriate reverence.

Confucius also integrated a special regard for Heaven into his system. He felt his historical mission deeply and sought to embody the "heavenly mandate" he intuitively perceived, believing that Heaven required him to revive the great tradition established by early enlighteners like Wen Wang (737-794 BCE) and Zhou Gong (1122-1115 BCE). This aspect highlights Confucianism as a unique religious framework, though its religious nature remains debated. Formally, it possesses all religious attributes—higher deities such as Heaven with its virtues and high morality. This leads many scholars to view Confucianism as a religious system, a "Chinese religion" with its own attributes, ceremonies, and canons.

For a long time, Confucianism was the principal religion and social framework of China, though not the only one. Confucius himself rarely addressed topics such as the immortality of the soul or the afterlife. He famously remarked, "How can we discuss death when we do not yet understand what life is?"

In contrast, Daoism offers a different perspective on the relationship between the present and the past, the meaning of life, and the nature of the ideal ruler. The founder of Daoism is traditionally considered to be Laozi, a contemporary of Confucius (circa 604 BCE - date of death unknown). Little is known about him, and the information available is often unclear. "Laozi" translates to "Old Philosopher" or sometimes "Old Child." It is likely that his real name was Li Zi, and he came from the kingdom of So, near present-day Beijing. Laozi is also said to have used the pseudonym Bai Yan, derived from his paternal family name. The uncertainty surrounding Laozi's life has led some researchers to even question his existence. However, Sima Qian’s "Historical Records" (145-86 BCE) provides contrary evidence.

Daoism, unlike Confucianism, places a primary focus on ontological issues. For Daoism, the "beginning of time" corresponds to the ontologically and axiologically primary realm of the boundless and unknowable source of existence—Dao. The Chinese term "Dao" cannot be translated literally but can be understood as a combination of primordial chaos and eternal order. The hidden Dao is absent in the world but present as the "mother of ten thousand things." Thus, Dao exists in two forms—absent (wu) and present (you). The "absent" aspect is primary, as "the ten thousand things arise from the existent, and the existent arises from the absent." The dual but unified Dao operates in the world, ensuring the constant interaction of opposites and their transformation into one another. Being inherently vast and unknowable, timeless, and spaceless, Dao manifests in the universe through the positive force of De. In Confucianism, De represents the virtues of the ruler and the noble person, while in Daoism, it is a more universal concept, not just a celestial virtue but the source of Heaven and Earth.

Laozi's teachings (Daoism) are deeply philosophical, addressing the essence of worldview, the structure of the world, and humanity's place within it. Laozi perceived the world as unified and indivisible, governed by immutable laws. He believed that in the vast and unified Cosmos, everything is interconnected and similar. The universe, the state, and the human body are similarly structured, sharing a singular essence as the laws of the Cosmos remain constant throughout. Thus, neither time nor space affects this essence. A wise person, having partially grasped these laws, should act consistently regardless of their location.

Modern scholarship highlights two primary texts that explore the essence and history of Daoism: the "Dao De Jing" and the "Zhuangzi." It is unclear which appeared first, but traditionally, the "Dao De Jing" is considered the earlier text, dating approximately to the 4th-2nd centuries BCE. Translated as "The Book of the Way and Virtue," the "Dao De Jing" contrasts the Dao (the Way) with De (Virtue). De is seen as the virtue bestowed upon the world by the Absolute. The presence of De in a person fosters various virtues, hence De is also referred to as Virtue. Laozi’s teachings on the opposition of Good and Evil are somewhat conditional, as each concept contains its opposite—Good includes a part of Evil, and Evil contains a part of Good. Things reach their limit and transform into their opposites; beauty that becomes commonplace loses its uniqueness, and recognized good begins to engender evil. Laozi’s teachings reflect this in verse 22 of the "Dao De Jing":

The Benefit of Humility

Bent, it endures; Bowed, it straightens; Deep, it fills; Old, it renews; Having little, it gains; Desiring much, it doubts.

Thus, the Sage, who focuses on the One, Is a model for the world: He does not promote himself, thus he is known; He does not assert himself, thus he is recognized; He does not contend, thus he has merit; He does not boast, thus he is enduring.

In the world, no one can surpass him, Because he does not engage in conflict.