Philosophy of the Renaissance

Neoplatonism of the Renaissance Era and Its Characteristics

Neoplatonism during the Renaissance is vividly reflected in the teachings about the hierarchical structure of the world, originating from a single primary source; the ascent of the soul to its "origin"; and the development of theurgy (practical methods for knowing God). It indeed promotes the elevation of human nature, which was generally accepted even within the Christian context.

A unique transition from the medieval period to the Renaissance is marked by the system of Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa (1401-1464), which is based on the idea of the identity of opposites. Nicholas attributes a religious character to the doctrine of faith, but he approaches it not only from a religious perspective but also as a thinker addressing a range of issues that transcend religion. He prioritizes faith over knowledge, asserting that true knowledge comes only from recognizing one's own ignorance and acknowledging that without truth, one cannot possess, exist, live, or understand anything. At the same time, Nicholas believes that human knowledge—being relative, multifaceted, and limited—cannot grasp the truth, and God remains unknowable to humans. He proclaims a thesis that can be applied to the entire era: "In no individual can the principles of individuation be harmoniously combined as in another: each is uniquely perfect in its own measure." Nicholas remained loyal to Catholic teaching but recognized that human creativity is limited, though this limitation is a gift from the Creator, who is boundless in possibilities.

We can assert that Nicholas of Cusa’s speculative theories aimed to create a new image of human personality based on new concepts of God and the surrounding world. Unlike Italian humanists, Nicholas focused not only on ethical issues but also on the organization of the world. He was among the first to attempt to reframe the relationship between nature and God, laying the groundwork for pantheistic tendencies in 16th-century thinkers. The essence of his position is expressed in the formula: "God is in everything; everything is in God."

The main tenets of Nicholas of Cusa’s teachings were interpreted by representatives of the Florentine Platonic Academy, though not as direct followers. One variant of such interpretation is found in the views of the Italian philosopher-mystic Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494), who, unlike Nicholas, was significantly more radical. Pico sought to justify human dignity and freedom as the sovereign creator of one’s own "self." By absorbing everything, a person can become anything, as they are always a result of their own efforts. Unlike his predecessors, who viewed humans as a microcosm, Pico advanced further, positioning humanity beyond all existing cosmic hierarchical schemes. He referred to humans as the "fourth" dimension of the cosmic hierarchy, situated beyond the three others (elemental, celestial, and angelic).

Continuing the humanistic tradition, Pico della Mirandola placed the problem of freedom of choice at the center, as the primary measure of any action and its moral evaluations. Mystically, Pico believed in the power of magic and studied Kabbalah deeply, which led to some of his works being condemned as heretical by the papal curia. His life's major work, "900 Theses on Dialectics, Morality, Physics, Mathematics for Public Discussion," was intended to be defended in a public debate in Rome, to which the most renowned scholars of Europe were invited at the speaker’s expense. Before the debate, Pico was to deliver an "Oration on the Dignity of Man," in which he disavowed following any philosophical school and emphasized his independence from all directions and currents. The foundation of the 900 Theses was formed by propositions borrowed from "Latin doctors," Peripatetics, Plato, Neoplatonists, the Hermetic corpus, and Kabbalah. Consequently, a special papal commission banned this work, and the author faced the threat of the Inquisition.

Overall, during his short life, Giovanni Pico della Mirandola introduced several original approaches into Western European intellectual tradition:

• He integrated Kabbalistic teachings into magical and Hermetic traditions, which had a significant influence on contemporary thought.
• He sought to combine various aspects of Aristotle and the Scholastics in new philosophical programs.

Pico’s ideas were further developed by the Swiss philosopher and physician Paracelsus (Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim) (1493-1541), who was called the "Luther of medicine" for being among the first to lecture in German rather than Latin. Paracelsus presented one of the most comprehensive doctrines within the so-called "occult pneumatology" (a mystical philosophy aimed at understanding spiritual substances). He argued that nature is composed of earth, air, water, and heavenly fire as primary elements, and it is a living organism imbued with a "stellar soul."

Paracelsus formulated a concept of medicine as a universal science, synthesizing the achievements of physics, chemistry, and physiology while relying on the value frameworks of theology and philosophy. All processes occurring in the human body are chemical processes based on the balance of fundamental elements: mercury, sulfur, and salt. Paracelsus identified the primary causes of human illness as:

• Cosmic and atmospheric influences;
• Anatomical and physiological properties of the body (the effect of harmful substances and poisons, hereditary anomalies);
• Psychological influences;
• Divine will.

The healing process could include all possible means: prayers, incantations, chemical solutions, plant compounds, music, and more. Paracelsus bridged chemistry and medical science, and his teachings and those of his followers are sometimes referred to as iatrochemistry. Among the sayings attributed to Paracelsus is: "The best doctors are those who do the least harm."