Philosophy of the Renaissance

Machiavellianism and Utopianism of the Renaissance Era

By the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th centuries, humanism faced a deep crisis. The harsh realities shattered dreams of a harmonious state and a god-like humanity. Italian cities remained fragmented, leading to the emergence of the teachings of the Florentine Niccolò Machiavelli (1469—1527). His most notable works, "Discourses on the First Decade of Livy" and "The Prince," laid the groundwork for modern political science. Machiavelli gained worldwide fame with "The Prince," where he distanced himself from his era, the church, religion, and societal morals, focusing solely on the prosperity and well-being of the state. He held that anything useful for political ends was acceptable, even if it involved deceit, cruelty, and betrayal. Religion was seen merely as a tool of politics, and the church was expected to subordinate itself to state interests. For Machiavelli, securing the state's military strength and safeguarding it from external threats were paramount, regardless of the populace's well-being.

Machiavelli, following Aristotle, categorized forms of government into monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, considering all equally indifferent, as each aimed merely to perpetuate its own rule. His advice for all governments was similar: monarchs should suppress dissent, aristocrats should eliminate deposed dynasties, and democrats should destroy aristocrats. Although such actions might provoke public discontent, Machiavelli believed that any new regime would be just as flawed as the old one.

In the 16th century, social and economic issues became pressing, sparking ideas of an ideal society. In England, the Oxford humanists, particularly Thomas More (1478—1535), gained prominence. As Chancellor under King Henry VIII, More witnessed societal turmoil, which he addressed in his book "Utopia," written between 1515 and 1516. The book presents a dialogue between the traveler Raphael Hythloday, Thomas More, and the Dutch humanist Pieter Giles. More criticizes societal flaws where the worst thrive and denounces the enclosures that led to the dispossession of English peasants, asserting that true societal development is unlikely where private property and money rule.

In his ideal society, Utopia, inhabitants engage in crafts and farming on a rotational basis. Resources are distributed based on need, education is universal and combines theoretical and practical learning, and governance is managed by elected citizens, with a prince serving for life if elected. The Utopians' disdain for money is evident in their use of gold for chains and chamber pots. Despite this, More’s ideal society still permits slavery for those punished for crimes. Utopia allows religious tolerance and diversity, viewing various religions as different ways to worship the same God, though atheists are allowed only private expression of their views.

As Chancellor, Thomas More was a staunch opponent of the English Reformation, which led to his imprisonment and execution. In 1886, the Catholic Church beatified him, and in 1935, he was canonized.

Italian humanist Tommaso Campanella (1568—1639) also engaged with utopian ideas. In his philosophy of nature, Campanella explored the dynamic forces affecting passive matter, influenced by mystical teachings, astrology, and Kabbalah. He viewed nature as an emanation of divinity, reflecting the eternal Reason, with everything striving to return to this divine source.

Campanella imagined the Earth as a great beast with humans as worms within it, expressing a view of nature’s unity and the lack of a fundamental difference between organic and inorganic matter. In his utopian work, "The City of the Sun," Campanella even denied individuals the right to personal privacy for the sake of eugenics, proposing that procreation should occur solely by the decision of higher authorities, with "Love" as a title for the official in charge of reproduction. The state would control all major aspects of human life, including child-rearing.