Philosophy of the Modern Era and Enlightenment

General Characteristics of the Modern Era (16th - 18th centuries)

The period from the 16th to the 18th century in the history of philosophy is known as the Modern Era and the Enlightenment. When considering this era within a broader historical context, including the development of culture, society, science, and the economy, its influence extends beyond these three centuries into the 20th century, transitioning into the post-industrial era, postmodernity, and globalization. For the history of philosophy, this period is marked by the creation of grand philosophical systems, which must be understood in light of the emerging experimental-mathematical natural sciences. A defining feature of the Modern Era is its rationality. Rationality, a significant philosophical issue, refers to the reasoned activity of humans, which is the ability to think and act based on rational norms and rules. It involves the awareness and understanding of goals and the means to achieve them. Philosophical rationality is grounded in the recognition that the capacity for understanding is essential for the existence and development of both individuals and humanity. Rationality encompasses not only logical reasoning but also non-logical cognitive activities. Intuitive, emotional, and value factors are regarded by rationalists as crucial components of intellectual activity. The opposite of rationality is irrationality.

Key characteristics of the Modern Era include:

• Naturalism (Pantheism and Deism): In the 17th century, the geometric method of studying nature became popular. Figures like Galileo, Descartes, Spinoza, and Hobbes advocated for studying objects as forms and figures with quantitative parameters. For them, to know meant to measure, leading to the active use of mathematics and quantitative research methods.
• Determinism: The relationship between cause and effect. All phenomena in the world are seen as having causes.
• Analytical Approach: In research, it is necessary to break down subjects into smaller components.
• Mechanicism: Through the work of Newton, Galileo, and Huygens, mechanics evolved into a scientific theory.

During this period, philosophy is generally divided into two major directions: empirical and rationalist.

• Empiricism is based on the principle that science should rely on experience and establish natural laws through logical generalization of empirical data.
• Rationalism holds that science should be grounded in truths of the mind and concepts developed by reason, formulating laws purely through logical methods. The limitation of empiricism is that our experience is too constrained to reliably justify general judgments. Thus, empirical methods alone are insufficient for science; they cannot build comprehensive scientific theories.