Philosophy of the Modern Era and Enlightenment
Philosophy of the Enlightenment Era
The Enlightenment was a period in European cultural history characterized by ideas affirming the omnipotence of human reason. The 18th century in Western Europe marked an era when spiritual and cultural life was dominated by the extraordinary popularity of ideas promoting the endless potential of societal progress in advancing humanistic principles. These ideas are notable not only for their originality in philosophical discourse but also for their ideological and cultural coherence.
The central theme of the Enlightenment was Reason. Reason opened new possibilities for human and societal development, providing not only positive power and determination but also the capacity for critical thought. Skepticism toward metaphysics and its principles became prevalent among Enlightenment thinkers. Preceding the Enlightenment, the English philosopher John Locke (1632-1704) compared metaphysicians to people who, lacking the means of existence and even understanding what money is, keep accounts in huge sums using tokens named "écu," "louis d'or," "pound." These manipulations changed nothing; their sums were always just a certain number of tokens. Similarly, metaphysicians, regardless of their achievements or activities, produce conclusions that amount to mere words.
The anti-metaphysical stance of Enlightenment philosophy is closely tied to thinkers' views on religious faith. The freedom of scientific inquiry found no common ground with the categorical and authoritarian nature of Revelation, leading some philosophers to adopt openly atheistic positions. However, for most, the issue remained open. The most characteristic resolution of this issue was Deism, which accepts the creation of the world by God and even allows for divine intervention in earthly matters. At the same time, belief in an omnipotent God is satisfied with attempts to establish a religion grounded in rationalism. The Enlightenment gravitates towards the concept of reason and rationality, which are not innate but acquired through comprehensive experience. Therefore, in Enlightenment philosophy, Reason assumes a dynamic character, embodying a tendency toward continuous movement in knowledge.
Another significant feature of the Enlightenment period is its national character. The philosophical positions of prominent figures of the time differ considerably, yet these differences are overshadowed by commonalities in issues and their resolutions. When discussing the Enlightenment, we can distinguish between German, English, and particularly French Enlightenment, as the development of philosophical thought in 18th-century France most clearly reflects the spirit and ideological direction of the entire period. It is essential to note that Enlightenment, as a broad cultural and ideological movement, first announced itself in France, where its main features were most distinctly marked.
The founders of French Enlightenment are considered to be Voltaire and Montesquieu, whose works influenced the Enlightenment thinkers of the second wave—Rousseau, Holbach, Diderot, Helvétius. François-Marie Arouet (1694-1778), known by his pen name Voltaire, is regarded as one of the greatest thinkers of the 18th century. After his initial literary triumph with the play "Oedipus" in 1718, he began to refer to himself grandly as Voltaire. He effectively established the school of Enlightenment historiography in France and beyond. From 1746, Voltaire was a foreign honorary member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences.
In his reflections, Voltaire delves into the understanding of history and passionately criticizes clericalism. At the same time, for Voltaire, faith is primarily faith in God, not the church. This faith is seen as the most beneficial for humanity, serving as the only restraint for both powerful individuals and ordinary people, who are inclined to criminal acts. Voltaire attempts to distinguish between faith and superstition, which merely embarrasses faith and can render it destructive. He points out that an atheist is a person endowed with reason who errs but thinks independently, while a superstitious person is a coarse fool who always relies on borrowed thoughts.
Voltaire can be viewed as one of the most prominent advocates of political freedom. In Europe of his time, he saw this ideal in the principles of the English constitution, which he believed provided real protection for every citizen's property and personal safety. To be free, according to Voltaire, means knowing human rights, as knowing them ensures their protection. He considered the 18th century a period when reason, epitomized by philosophy grounded in the achievements of science and art, reaches a level of development that cannot be reversed. He was convinced that soon a "reign of reason" would be established, eliminating social evils and creating conditions for human happiness.
Another French thinker, Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778), focused his philosophical inquiries on the individual's position within contemporary society. Rousseau was concerned with the unequal status of most people and the means and possibilities for their liberation. The apex of Rousseau's social philosophy is his work "The Social Contract," in which he proposes the idea of an ideal societal structure. According to Rousseau, the "social contract" should protect the rights of private individuals, ensuring their legitimate possessions and transforming use into property. By legitimizing private property, the "social contract" gives it legal status and obliges state authority to respect property rights. Rousseau acknowledges that the "social contract" will simultaneously lead to the alienation of certain rights from the individual in favor of society. However, considering that no participant in society has rights that others do not acquire for themselves, each person regains what they seemingly lost.
Rousseau's renewed understanding of the "social contract" leads him to contemplate how human abilities are strengthened and developed in society, how human thoughts are expanded, and how the soul is purified. Only the "civil state" can grant true moral freedom, making a person the master of themselves.
The ideas of French Enlightenment significantly contributed to the development of modern European materialistic philosophy. A prominent role in this is occupied by the philosopher and encyclopedist Denis Diderot (1713-1784). As a lifelong atheist, Diderot was deeply convinced that the primary source of human knowledge about the world is sensation, though reason also plays a crucial role, without which the process of knowledge remains at its initial stage. Hence, according to Diderot, sensation and reason must always be in close interrelation. Diderot saw true philosophical method as testing reason with reason, using reason and experimentation to control sensations, and using sensations to understand nature. He identified observation, reflection, and experimentation as the main tools through which a person can understand nature. Observation accumulates facts, reflection combines them, and experimentation tests the results of combinations. The philosopher believed that a true natural researcher could only be one who organically integrates rationalist philosophy and experimentation.
German Enlightenment differs significantly from the French not so much in new themes and problems as in their logical constructions. The method of rational analysis aims to prove the consistency of each step of the researcher. Its author is considered to be the German philosopher and mathematician Christian Wolff (1679-1754), who, from 1725, was an honorary foreign member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences and later its vice president. Wolff founded the most influential philosophical school in Germany. His students and followers occupied most of the chairs in German universities of the time, and the entire education system was based on his general philosophical principles. The dominance of Wolff's philosophy lasted until the emergence of Immanuel Kant's "critical philosophy." Wolff's method defines the reliable direction of science through systematic determination of principles, meticulous clarification of fundamental concepts, rigor in proofs, and rejection of risky conclusions. According to Wolff, the main goal of philosophy is human happiness, and the philosopher's task is to serve humanity. However, happiness and progress are inseparable from knowledge, which cannot be achieved without freedom of thought. He emphasized and always sought what serves the welfare of people. Therefore, he chose the Latin motto "Ad usum vitae" ("For the use of life wisdom") for his philosophy.
In essence, the Enlightenment era can be seen as summarizing the first steps of modern European civilization. In any case, the emphasis placed by Enlightenment thinkers and their attempts to rationally embody the ideas of the absolute power of reason, social justice, and humanism led to the emergence of nearly all subsequent initiatives and philosophical directions. The development of one of the most important stages in European philosophy—the German classical philosophy—was largely influenced by Enlightenment ideas and the events of the French Revolution.