Philosophy of the Modern Era and Enlightenment

Empiricism and Sensualism

Francis Bacon (1561—1626), an influential English thinker from an aristocratic family, a Cambridge graduate, and a key figure in Elizabethan England, is regarded as the founder of empiricism. Bacon, who held various significant positions, including Lord Chancellor, emphasized that the ultimate goal of knowledge is to harness nature and improve human life under the principle of "knowledge is power." However, knowledge can only become a true power if it is genuine. Following the tradition of ancient thinkers, Bacon sought to bring happiness to earthly life, believing that science could make human existence healthier, more pleasurable, and more beautiful. The path to knowledge, according to Bacon, involves observation, analysis, comparison, and experimentation. He advocated for an inductive method of knowledge, moving from specific observations to broader generalizations. Bacon considered experience and human senses as the starting point of any cognitive process, which is why he is seen as a progenitor of empiricism—a philosophical doctrine that holds sensory experience as the primary source of reliable knowledge, with all other knowledge relying on sensory perception. Bacon believed in advancing natural sciences to enhance human life and propose a new approach to knowledge. He identified the need to purify the mind from errors obstructing true understanding, which he termed "idols" and classified into four categories:

• Idols of the Tribe: These are inherent in human nature, where the human mind, like an uneven mirror, distorts reality by adding its own nature to the natural world.
• Idols of the Cave: These are individual biases that distort one's perception of reality, influenced by personal traits, upbringing, reading, or authorities.
• Idols of the Marketplace: These arise from social interactions and public opinion, which can be a serious obstacle to true knowledge.
• Idols of the Theater: These are dogmas of previous philosophies and flawed logical constructs that shape our view of the world as if staging a play.

Bacon also seriously addressed the classification of sciences, proposing a division based on the three properties of the rational soul: history corresponds to memory, poetry to imagination, and philosophy to reason. History is further divided into civil (including religious, scientific, and societal history) and natural. Poetry is categorized into epic, dramatic, and parabolic. Bacon divided philosophy into two major branches: natural philosophy and first philosophy (dealing with general axioms of sciences and transcendence). Mathematics, a unique addition to natural philosophy, is also differentiated.

Thomas Hobbes (1588—1679), an English philosopher and a defender of Bacon’s ideas, is considered one of the founders of sensualism. Hobbes viewed human sensations as the primary source of knowledge. In his reflections on "primary philosophy," Hobbes emphasized the primacy of the existence of "bodies" (matter), categorizing them into:

• Natural inanimate bodies;
• Natural living bodies (e.g., humans);
• Artificial bodies (e.g., the State).

Consequently, philosophy was also divided into three parts: dealing with natural bodies, mental faculties and education, and civic duties. While Hobbes expanded upon Bacon's ideas, he also recognized the value of rationalism and the "rational method" of knowledge, appreciating the successes of mechanics both in England and Europe. Hobbes concluded that knowledge should not solely rely on the observation of facts but should aim at rationally uncovering causes. After Hobbes's death, his major works, including "Leviathan" and "The Citizen," were condemned and burned by Oxford University, which he had once attended.