Philosophy of the Renaissance

Key Features of the Renaissance Era: Humanism

The Renaissance, or Rebirth, is chronologically defined as spanning from the early 14th to the late 16th century. Although brief, this period is significant in content. It marks the emergence of the concept of the new individual as the creator of their own self and the development of a dual-centered worldview (God - man), where humanity ascends to the level of the divine.

This era was characterized by major geographical discoveries that drastically altered European perceptions of the world. The focus on education shifted from being solely a prerogative of the clergy to increasingly involving secular authority. Against this backdrop, humanism emerged as a movement that expanded opportunities for self-improvement. The period's primary features include a secular character of culture and its anthropocentrism, with a strong emphasis on human beings and their activities.

Interest in ancient culture reached new heights, leading to a sort of "revival" (hence the term "Renaissance"). The focus shifted to issues of goodness and beauty, as society sought moral purification and the revival of high human qualities. The concept of the Renaissance is evident in Italian humanists such as Giorgio Vasari (1511-1574), but the term in its modern sense was introduced by the 19th-century French historian Jules Michelet (1798-1874).

The Renaissance is marked by a rejection of official Catholic religiosity and a heightened interest in the individual. Prominent intellectual movements of this time include heliocentrism, hermeticism, and secularism. Heliocentrism is the belief that the Sun is the central celestial body around which the Earth and other planets revolve. Hermeticism is understood as a doctrine about higher natural laws governed by the principles of causality and analogy. Proponents of hermeticism believe that understanding any causal connection can be augmented by magical influence through the desires of the adept of secret knowledge. According to legend, the origins of hermeticism are attributed to the works of the ancient Egyptian priest Hermes Trismegistus. Secularism refers to the process of diminishing religion's influence on societal and private relations, implying complete or partial independence of society from ecclesiastical oversight and is characterized by economic (rejection of church property in favor of the state), political (secular state), and cultural (secular art, education, norms of daily life) factors.

The main directions of Renaissance philosophy traditionally include: humanism, Neoplatonism, natural philosophy, political philosophy, utopian socialism, and the Reformation. The essence of humanism lies in humanity, the affirmation of the value of the individual, their right to happiness, and the recognition of universal moral and ethical ideals. Humanism requires placing the individual above any class ideas, party or group interests. The motives of Renaissance humanism are clearly expressed in folklore, art, philosophy, and religion. During this period, humanism developed into a powerful worldview movement, becoming part of the arsenal of progressive human forces. However, the affirmation of humanist ideals is a complex and contradictory process. Humanist ideas reflect general principles of societal development—creating conditions for preserving humanity and allowing each person to achieve personal happiness. The problem of freedom—freedom from and freedom for—emerges vividly. Thus, Renaissance humanists saw the primary goal as improving human nature through the study of ancient literature. The original term denoting humanism was "studia humanitatis," which referred to the diligent study of everything that constitutes the wholeness of the human spirit, as "humanitas" signifies both the fullness and the distinctiveness of human nature. This understanding of "studia humanitatis" was first substantiated in the works of Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374), an Italian poet and thinker from Florence. Petrarca was a student of the renowned theologian Barlaam of Calabria (1290-1348), who emphasized that humanity could never fully understand God and that any proofs regarding Him could never be conclusively proven. Petrarca absorbed many of Barlaam's ideas, especially after being ordained as a priest.

For Petrarca, humanism is not about defending human rights (as we might understand the term today) but about studying humanity as it is; it involves placing humanity at the center of the world and exploring it comprehensively. In contrast to Scholasticism, Renaissance humanist philosophy focuses on studying humanity with all its earthly and unearthly needs. Instead of ontological issues, Renaissance thinkers prioritize ethical questions.

Petrarca’s global renown as a poet is based solely on his Italian verses, which he viewed critically and dismissively, as he wrote them not for the public but for himself, "...to ease his sorrowful heart." Another notable work by the Florentine thinker is the autobiographical treatise "On the Contempt of the World," presented in the form of a dialogue with Saint Augustine, revealing his moral struggle with himself and his rich inner world. The source of this struggle is the existing contradiction between Petrarca’s personal ambitions and traditional ascetic morality. In the struggle with Augustine, who embodies a religious-ascetic worldview, Petrarca’s humanist perspective ultimately prevails.

In his letters, Petrarca sharply criticizes the Scholastics and the contemporary clergy while remaining a devout Catholic himself. These letters, forming a kind of quadruple book, are addressed to real and fictional individuals and are written under a strong stylistic influence of the works of Cicero and Seneca.

Francesco Petrarca’s role in the history of humanism lies in laying the foundation for most early humanist literature with its deep interest in all aspects of human inner life, its critical stance toward contemporary and past contexts, and its attempt to find in ancient literature a basis for developing a new worldview and justifying new needs.

Another representative of Italian humanism, Dante Alighieri (1265-1321), presents his worldview principles somewhat differently. Dante, a lay theologian and founder of the Italian literary language, was an active public figure of his time, participating in the political struggle between the "White" Guelphs (representing the merchant class) and the "Black" Guelphs (the city nobility). After the victory of the "Blacks," he was exiled from Florence and spent his last years in Ravenna. Dante is the author of the treatises "On the Vulgar Tongue" in Latin and "The Banquet," considered the first example of Italian philosophical prose, written in the vernacular Italian language. In these works, Dante presents his views on morality, theology, and analyzes the properties of the soul and intellect. In his treatise "Monarchy," Dante discusses the need for the creation of a world state, an empire encompassing the entire world, to be led by a monarch. The monarch’s primary task is to care for the welfare of the people, without concern for personal wealth. The ruler must be advised by philosophers, and the church should be separated from secular power.

Dante’s masterpiece, "The Divine Comedy," written between 1307 and 1321, was first given the epithet "Divine" by his biographer, the humanist Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375), and has been known by this title ever since. In this work, Dante describes his own journey through the afterlife, symbolizing sinful humanity. He divides the poem into three parts: "Inferno," "Purgatorio," and "Paradiso." Accompanied by the ancient thinker Virgil (symbolizing earthly reason), Dante descends into Hell (a world of condemnation), which is divided into nine circles, then ascends Mount Purgatory (a world of penance), where souls are cleansed of their sins, and finally, with his beloved Beatrice (symbolizing divine reason), the poet reaches Paradise (a world of bliss and knowledge of absolute truth). In Paradise, Dante converses with his third guide, Bernard of Clairvaux, a 13th-century mystical theologian.

Dante’s views, expressed in "The Divine Comedy," clearly show the influence of Aristotle, Ptolemy, Dionysius the Areopagite, and the Neoplatonists. For him, the true significance of the world is not in its physical realms but in the plane of ethics. Dante envisions the world as a form consisting of ten concentric spheres, with Earth at the center of the universe. Above Earth is the sphere of the Moon, followed by Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Jupiter, Saturn; the sphere of the Fixed Stars, and the sphere of the Primum Mobile, which moves the universe. Beyond this are the heavens—the abode of God, angels, and the blessed. At the center of the Earth lies Hell, where Lucifer is bound in ice at its lowest point.

Dante believes that every living being strives either towards God or towards the Devil. God is far above and outside, while the Devil is deep below and within. When we overflow with our true essence, created in the image of God, we extend outward, open ourselves to the world, broaden our worldview, and seek truth and beauty. For such individuals, the mystical rose before the gates of Paradise blooms eternally. But when illusions and ephemeral joys blind us, we become burdened by sin and foolishness. We begin to sink inward, grow heavier, close ourselves off, and wrap ourselves in darkness, hatred, and solitude. The lower we descend, the narrower the circles of Hell become. At the very bottom, there is literally nothing: a silent void and fear.

According to Mircea Eliade and Charles Trinkaus, the views of Dante, Petrarca, and later figures such as Marsilio Ficino (1433-1499) and Lorenzo Valla (1405-1457) marked the beginning of new religious positions, rejecting Scholasticism and attempting to return to the teachings of the Church Fathers. Humanists believed that by being both devout Christians and knowledgeable of ancient literature, they were better equipped than the clergy to understand and demonstrate a similar understanding of divine and human nature in Christianity and pre-Christian beliefs.