Philosophy of The Middle Ages

Late Scholasticism in Western Europe (13th - 15th Century)

The early 13th century in Western Europe marked a significant economic, political, and cultural rise. During this period, universities began to emerge, with Oxford (1117) and Paris (1215) being among the first. The University of Paris combined several ecclesiastical schools and initially had four faculties: arts, canon law, medicine, and theology. Alongside universities, monastic orders became significant educational centers. The most influential were the Franciscan (founded in 1209) and Dominican (founded in 1216) orders, which advanced not only theology but also philosophy and culture. Notable thinkers of this era included St. Albert the Great, St. Thomas Aquinas, and St. Bonaventure.

The 13th century also saw the rise of the "Summa" genre in philosophical writing. The early scholastic "Summas" became an original form for presenting and organizing theological and philosophical teaching materials.

A central figure of this period was Cardinal Thomas Aquinas (1225 - 1274), known as the "Angelic Doctor" and Great Teacher of the Church. His works completed the grand structure of Catholic doctrine and systematized scholasticism. In 1879, Pope Leo XIII recognized Aquinas's system as the "only true philosophy of Catholicism."

Aquinas's philosophy addresses two key problems:

1. Human understanding of God as the source and end of being.
2. Understanding of humans as receivers of divine revelation and seekers of life's meaning in salvation.

Aquinas introduced a novel understanding of being-in-itself, viewing being as existing. For him, existence is not an addition to being but a factor that actualizes it. His concept of created being, consisting of non-identical components—essence and existence—forms the basis for understanding the existence of God as the First Being, Pure Existence.

Aquinas's second revolutionary concept is anthropological-personalist. He views the soul as a form that is not the result of evolution but being-in-itself. The existence of the soul is not explained by natural forces but by God's necessary intervention, which creates the soul. The soul, existing as a subject, transcends the mode of existence of the human body. Thus, the destruction of the body does not negate the existence of the soul, which must transition to a different state relative to matter. This theory interprets the soul as a person and forms the foundation for Christian personalism.

Thomas Aquinas was the first medieval philosopher to attempt to bridge philosophy and religion. His mentor, Albert the Great, had already suggested that philosophical knowledge and sciences should not be hostile to Christian faith. Aquinas, distinguishing between faith and reason, emphasized that reason could still arrive at true conclusions about matters of faith. He acknowledged some limitations of reason: "If knowledge of God were possible solely through reason, humanity would still be in the darkest ignorance." Faith seeks reason as if it were its "opposite twin," reflecting Aquinas’s internal quest. This perspective aligns with Augustine’s view. Aquinas wrote, "I would not believe if I did not understand that it is necessary to believe," echoing Augustine’s notion that faith is a truth experienced by the heart. In his reflections, Aquinas acknowledges that a philosopher relies on visible causes, unlike the believer who depends on the first cause. Thus, faith, which he calls the highest wisdom, contemplates the First Cause.

Nevertheless, Aquinas regards both faith and knowledge through the lens of a devout Christian, which colors his system. He notes that reason must be assigned an active capability to actualize what is grasped by reason, a concept known as "active intellect." Aquinas believes that faith does not fear reason but seeks its help and trusts it. Faith lies between knowledge and opinion, demanding a final acceptance, yet it lags behind reason due to its lack of obviousness. Faith, like grace, builds upon and perfects nature, as it does with reason. Enlightened by faith, reason is freed from the flaws and limitations stemming from original sin and gains the strength to reach knowledge of the mystery of the One in the Trinity. Human reason does not need to deny itself or diminish to accept the truths of faith; people arrive at these truths through voluntary and conscious choice.

John Duns Scotus (1265 - 1308; doctor subtilis) is sometimes associated with Augustinian philosophy. He is a sharp critic of the idea of harmony between faith and reason and advocates their separation. Scotus argues that these categories—faith and reason—are fundamentally different and must have separate statuses.

For Scotus, philosophy is defined as a specifically theoretical discipline focusing on being as essence. Philosophy, in understanding the world, relies solely on reason and knowledge, not rejecting experience. Consequently, all philosophical propositions must be evidentiary, while theology justifies its theories through faith. He views philosophy as an exclusively speculative science seeking knowledge for its own sake.

Theology deals with articula fide (objects of faith), so its statements cannot claim precision or be proven philosophically. Scotus argues that the mysteries of the Trinity, the resurrection of Christ, and the being of God cannot be grasped by reason, reflecting the impossibility of a rational philosophical interpretation of fundamental religious tenets. Faith, by itself, is sufficient to uphold the core doctrines.

Analyzing Scotus’s views on faith and knowledge, it is clear that for him, they are not reconcilable; they are irreconcilable. Religion cannot be subjected to philosophy, just as philosophy cannot rely solely on religious principles.

William of Ockham (1280 - 1349), a prominent nominalist of the Middle Ages, was unofficially dubbed "venerabilis inceptor" (Venerable Initiator) of the new scholasticism and is considered a successor to Scotus's approach. Ockham not only continued but deepened Scotus's ideas. For him, faith and reason are entirely independent. Ockham’s motto is: "Sed sola fide tenentur" ("God can only be known through faith"). Faith, in these matters, does not require reason's intervention, which cannot grasp or reject such formulas. Divine truths can exist beyond the realm of reason, belonging entirely to faith. Thus, philosophy cannot be seen as a servant to theology, which is perceived not as a science but as a system where its components are connected not through rationality but through faith. Ockham goes so far in his skepticism as to acknowledge that certain problems can only be revealed through faith, which is absolute in its content and nature.

Ockham was the first in the Middle Ages to attempt to free philosophy from the burdensome scholastic concepts such as "hidden quality," "substantial form," and "natures." He employed a methodological approach later known as "Ockham's razor," summarized by the principle: "Entities should not be multiplied beyond necessity." Modern scholars view this principle as a call for simplicity and economy in thought, aiming to discard less productive or obstructive concepts in the pursuit of truth.

Both Ockham and Duns Scotus are more categorical than their predecessors. Ockham restricts the realm of philosophy for the preservation of faith, though his Christian faith does not necessarily influence his philosophical reasoning. They do not expect reason to validate what revelation has provided. Ockham considers attempts to explain God, such as those by Anselm, as impious. He accepts what the Church teaches about Jesus but avoids explanations. After Duns Scotus and Ockham, medieval philosophy declines. While Duns Scotus posits that God is "beyond good and evil," Ockham goes further, asserting that God is beyond truth.

Thus, medieval philosophy represents a broad array of doctrines, concepts, and systems with their own ideological orientations. It is theocentric and expresses a dualism of the spiritual and the corporeal. Medieval philosophy is traditionally categorized into nominalism (P. Abelard), realism (T. Aquinas), and conceptualism (D. Scotus). The philosophical landscape of the Middle Ages includes the schools of Thomists, Ockhamists, and Scotists, each with its own specifics, characteristics, and spiritual priorities.

Despite its specifics, medieval philosophy became an integral part of Western philosophical tradition and culture, laying the groundwork for philosophical movements and schools during the Renaissance and the Modern period.