Philosophy of The Middle Ages

Patristics and Early Scholasticism

In analyzing medieval philosophy, our primary focus is on the moment it becomes a conscious expression and bearer of theological ideas, embodying the religious spirit of Christianity. It was during this period that a distinctive style of philosophy emerged, deeply intertwined with the new Christian ideology and based on monotheistic and revelatory principles. This is exemplified by patristics (from Latin patres, meaning "fathers" or "teachers," and ekklesiae, meaning "church")—the earliest historical form of medieval (Christian) philosophy. Patristics not only related itself to theology but also deliberately shaped its theoretical religious inquiries around religious issues. The scope of patristics is quite broad and can generally be divided into three periods:

1. The first period (2nd to 3rd centuries) is associated with the apologists, who focused on defending Christian doctrine against pagans.
2. The second period (4th to 5th centuries) involves the elaboration and systematization of church doctrines.
3. The third period (6th to 8th centuries) is considered a concluding phase, marked by a particular reflection on and completion of the concepts acquired.

Moreover, patristics is divided into two branches: Western (Latin) patristics and Eastern (Greek) patristics. The primary center of Eastern patristics was Alexandria, while the center of Western patristics was Rome. Eastern apologists contributed to the development of the Alexandrian and Cappadocian philosophical schools. Western patristics was represented by figures like the jurist and thinker Tertullian.

The early church fathers aimed to both justify the core doctrines of Christian faith and actively protect and preserve the purity of these ideals against heretics and pagans. Their work is generally characterized as apologetic (from Greek apologeomai, meaning "to defend" or "to justify"), designed to defend Christianity from philosophical and logical attacks and to affirm its truth and correctness, and, if possible, convert the critics themselves. One of the earliest apologists, Tertullian, asserted that apologetics serves not only to defend Christians but also to enlighten their attackers.

The first Christian apology appeared in the mid-2nd century CE, authored by the Athenian Martianus Capella, who addressed his apology to Emperor Antoninus Pius, asserting that only Christians possess true philosophy and only they have the path to the knowledge of God.

Notable Eastern apologists include Justin Martyr, Tatian, Origen, and Clement of Alexandria, while Western apologists include Tertullian, Arnobius, Mark Felix, and Lucius Caecilius. The apogee of patristic development is considered to be the work of Aurelius Augustine (354-430 CE), known in the Christian world as Augustine of Hippo. His worldview was shaped by Manichaean ideas and academic skepticism, yet these did not fully satisfy his spiritual needs. He often turned to the views of the Pythagoreans, Stoics, and most importantly, Plato. Augustine himself noted that it was Cicero’s work "Hortensius" that first sparked his interest in philosophy, leading him to discover Hellenistic philosophy as both a form of wisdom and an art of living.

Aurelius Augustine sought to highlight Christian truths that form the basis of faith: the Incarnation, the Virgin Birth, the death of Jesus, and His resurrection. He categorized these as matters that can only be grasped through faith rather than understanding. Augustine believed that Divine Providence performs what is called "the healing of human souls," which he divides into authority and reason. Authority demands faith and prepares the individual for reason, which in turn leads to understanding and knowledge. For Augustine, reason does not supersede authority in matters of faith. He proclaimed: "Credo ut intelligam" ("I believe in order to understand") and "Intelligo ut credam" ("I understand in order to believe"). These formulas create a dialogue between "knowledge" and "faith" as two fundamental pillars of Christian worldview. Augustine concluded that he understands what he believes, but does not necessarily believe everything he understands. Everything he understands, he knows; but not everything he knows, he believes. Augustine was convinced: "I know how beneficial it is to believe many things, even those I do not understand." Thus, a key starting point in Augustine’s system for clarifying the relationship between faith and knowledge could be the passage from Isaiah 7:9, as translated in the Septuagint: "If you do not believe, you will not understand."

There is no reason to believe Augustine equated faith with reason. His principle was that faith asks, and reason finds. Faith serves as the determining factor in both intellectual activity and moral formation, and its main purpose is to propagate Christian doctrine. However, Augustine did not seek to eradicate philosophical knowledge from the spiritual realm; rather, he aimed to support specific religious positions through philosophy.

Augustine clearly distinguishes between science (scientia) and wisdom (sapientia) as two entirely different and specific forms of knowledge. For him, wisdom is intellectual knowledge of Divine ideas, immutable principles of being, and thus Truth. Nonetheless, Augustine cautions that the highest human goal remains the transcendent good, the salvation of the soul, which cannot be achieved without wisdom and divine assistance.

Augustine is regarded as one of the greatest theologians after the Apostle Paul, and his views significantly influenced the development of philosophy in subsequent centuries. In the 13th century, Augustinianism emerged as a reaction against Aristotelianism, and in the 17th century, after the Reformation, the Jansenist movement, recognized by scholars as Augustinianism of that time, appeared.

In the Orthodox East, the philosophical tradition continued through the work of Byzantine theologian and poet John Damascene (c. 675 — before 753 CE), considered the main systematizer of Greek patristics. In his work "Philosophical Chapters," he offers his definition of philosophy in six points:

1. Philosophy is the knowledge of being as such, i.e., the knowledge of the nature of being;
2. Philosophy is the knowledge of divine and human things, visible and invisible;
3. Philosophy is reflection on both voluntary and natural death;
4. Philosophy is the imitation of God, achieved through wisdom — as true knowledge of good, justice — as the application of this knowledge in the ability to discern, and sanctity, which is higher than justice, being the ability to love one's enemies and do good to them, as known in wisdom;
5. Philosophy is the art of arts and science of sciences, which is in no way erroneous;
6. Philosophy is the love of wisdom; God is true wisdom; therefore, true philosophy is the love of God.

John Damascene’s definitions have a centripetal character: all forms of philosophy’s expression in life point to the root of its essence in Divine wisdom. Essentially, he suggests that a wise person has true knowledge of all that exists — both human and divine — and through contemplation, understands their own mortality while simultaneously sensing a call from God to eternal life with Him. Living in God means becoming like Him, participating in His mercy, and this resemblance brings true knowledge and ability.

In Western Europe, following Augustine, Anselm of Canterbury (1033—1109 CE) echoed the idea "Credo ut intelligam" ("I believe in order to understand") and was known during his lifetime as the "second Augustine." He posited that a true Christian should strive to understand the content of their faith and the connections between its tenets. Anselm openly embraced the position of a Christian who, having faith in God, seeks rational justification for that faith. His arguments in favor of this concept are presented in the formula "Fides quaerens intellectum" ("Faith seeking understanding"), as expressed in his "Proslogion." Thus, "credo ut intelligam" forms the basis of all Anselm’s reflections, yet it possesses an intrinsic essence articulated in his original appeal to God: "I acknowledge, Lord, and thank You that You have created this image of Yours in me, so that, remembering You, I might think of You and love You. But it (the image) has been so tarnished by sinful kisses and so clouded by the smoke of sins that it cannot perform the purpose for which it was created unless You Yourself renew and transform it. I, Lord, do not ask to penetrate Your heights, for I do not compare my understanding to them; but I desire only to understand Your truth, which my heart believes and loves. Since I do not seek to understand in order to believe, but believe in order to understand. I believe also that if I do not believe, I will not understand."

Anselm of Canterbury is among the first thinkers to distinguish between "living" and "dead" faith. He refers to the blind not only as those who have lost their sight but also as those who were born without it but should have had it. Thus, he questions whether faith without love should be called "dead," not in the sense that it has lost its life (love), but because it lacks what it should have. This suggests that faith operating through love is recognized as "living," whereas faith that is merely obligatory will be "dead." Therefore, such faith that is not reinforced by love and does not come alive is futile. However, reason is free and independent even in the religious sphere, allowing individuals to delve into the core mysteries of religion and perceive it as an intellectual support for faith. This implies that faith and reason are almost on the same plane and can complement each other.

Regarding the problem of universals, Anselm acknowledged that general concepts have an independent status, distinct from individual things, though connected to them. For Anselm of Canterbury, all such concepts are transformed into eternal divine thoughts in the Creator’s mind. The quest for universal truths, according to him, reflects a divine ordering of the world that can be rationalized.

This approach to understanding faith, reason, and universal concepts marks a significant development in medieval philosophy, bridging the gap between classical thought and the evolving Christian doctrine.