Philosophy of the Renaissance

Italian Humanism and Its Philosophical Foundations

The first (humanistic) period is primarily centered in Italy, where Florence became the leading hub of the humanist movement. It was here that the great poet and thinker Dante Alighieri (1265—1321) was born and spent many years in active political life. Numerous Renaissance humanists found inspiration in his works. In such writings as The Divine Comedy, The Banquet, and On Monarchy, Dante concluded that the divine and the earthly aspects of humanity are not in opposition but rather form a unity. This dual nature—both mortal and immortal—determines humanity's dual purpose: to attain happiness in this earthly life and eternal bliss in the afterlife.

Nevertheless, Francesco Petrarch (1304—1374) is considered the first conscious humanist. Petrarch, one of Italy's finest poets, was a passionate advocate of classical culture. His entire life was dedicated to scholarly and literary pursuits, as well as the search for and collection of classical texts. Petrarch approached literature with an understanding of its significance, recognizing the value it held for humanity in nurturing the spirit through continual dialogue with the great teachers of the past.

In one of his letters from the collection On Familiar Matters, Petrarch reveals the close connection between eloquence, the discipline of words, and philosophy, the cultivation of the soul. Language, he believed, cannot possess dignity unless the spirit itself is dignified, and conversely, the state of the spirit gives measure and meaning to words addressed to others. Therefore, we must strive to be useful to those with whom we live; there is no doubt that we can greatly aid their souls with our words.

Petrarch was a fervent opponent of official scholastic philosophy and set in opposition to it the study of humanity, emphasizing a humble philosophy of human beings and their construction of an earthly city. The genesis of Petrarch’s humanistic worldview is reflected in his early philosophical work My Secret, where he justifies worldly aspirations, seeking support not only from Augustine of Hippo but even more from Cicero, Seneca, and Virgil. Petrarch sought to reconcile Christianity with ancient philosophical culture, particularly Stoicism, consistently prioritizing moral philosophy, which he believed was closer to humanity than any other branch of philosophy, especially natural philosophy, toward which he was particularly critical.

A continuer of Petrarch’s traditions in the new vision of humanity was Coluccio Salutati (1331—1406), who, in his treatises and, even more so, in his letters, expressed his subtle reflections on the wealth of human spiritual experience. In his view, humans have an earthly purpose, and their duty is to collectively build the earthly city.

Among other Italian humanists, it is essential to mention Leonardo Bruni (1370—1444) and Poggio Bracciolini (1380—1459), who discovered Lucretius' On the Nature of Things, as well as Leon Battista Alberti (1404—1472) and Lorenzo Valla (1407—1457). Valla, a distinguished philologist and one of the best experts on the Latin language, is known for his active opposition to scholastic philosophy. He challenged it with his book The Repudiation of All Dialectic along with the Foundations of General Philosophy. Valla rejected scholastic logic by means of his philological method, focusing on the origin of words and the historical evolution of their meaning. Valla always revered words, believing them to be a powerful tool that could help the sciences attain their true value. His method, based on historical-linguistic analysis and comparative philology, aided him in his critique of scholastic logic, arguing that sophisms arose from ignorance of the true meanings of words. Philology, through which he analyzed logical terminology, assisted Valla in fulfilling his critical mission.

Let us now clarify some general philosophical foundations and characteristics of Italian humanism. First, it should be noted that humanism itself emerges as a new philosophy and, in its struggle against scholasticism, claims its right to be considered philosophy. This involved a profound upheaval in the entire system of philosophical knowledge: a new understanding of the nature of philosophizing, the sources of philosophy, the very image of the philosopher, and his place in society. Humanists were not professional philosophers; those remained within the tradition of medieval scholasticism. Humanism was born and developed outside of this tradition.

A general feature of the worldview of the first humanists was the infusion of Christian faith with ancient moral and philosophical ideas. They believed that Christianity was nothing other than a new, more complete exposition of the ancient teachings about the highest good. Alongside this, they were characterized by anti-clericalism, which manifested in a sharply critical attitude toward certain categories of the Catholic Church’s clergy.

Another hallmark of humanists is their aforementioned anthropocentrism. However, this was a distinctive form of anthropocentrism, which can be expressed by the phrase "the deification of man," a concept of humanity approaching God through creative activity. This deification of man, they believed, is best achieved through poetic creativity. Some humanists argued that only through poetry could one come to know God, and that this could not be accomplished by any other means. This is why Dante's Comedy (as he titled it himself) was renamed The Divine Comedy at the initiative of Giovanni Boccaccio.

In the anthropocentrism of the humanists, the concept of human activity holds a prominent place. It is often discussed in relation to free will and fortune (for instance, Salutati, and Petrarch in his treatise On Remedies for Fortune). Unlike fatum, which signified the dominion of some external force over humans, fortuna referred to "social necessity," which arises in a society of trade and competition. It is in relation to fortune that the greatest strength of free will is revealed. Niccolò Machiavelli, in his work The Prince, also touched on this idea. Building on the notion of free will, humanists strongly emphasized the vital necessity of human activity, standing in opposition to the contemplative approach to knowledge championed by the scholastics.

The humanists' anthropocentrism was also characterized by a moral-ethical focus. Starting with Petrarch, they saw little benefit in the natural sciences. In terms of social issues, they proclaimed the goodness of human nature, championed the idea of the fundamental equality of people, and defined the individual based on personal merit through active engagement. They also introduced new genres of philosophical works, departing from the traditional “summas” in favor of speeches, polemical invectives, and letters, structured according to the rules of rhetoric.