General Information on Philosophy

The Origin of Philosophy, Its Historical Types, and National Distinctiveness

Determining the exact moment when philosophy emerged as a cultural and historical phenomenon is quite challenging. This difficulty primarily arises from the necessity of first addressing the essence of philosophy itself. It can, however, be posited that the most probable timeframe for the birth of philosophy lies in the 8th to 7th centuries BCE. Yet, merely indicating a century or millennium is insufficient; it is also essential to elucidate the inevitability of philosophy’s emergence and to answer the question regarding the conditions that foster its genesis. If we agree that philosophy engages in the pursuit of ultimate foundations of existence, predominantly through rational means, we must delve deeper to identify the circumstances under which the desire to comprehend these foundations arises. A general answer may be framed thus: such occurrences typically unfold during periods of acute socio-cultural crises, when the old value orientations no longer satisfy the populace. Generally, this phenomenon manifests during the dissolution of the primitive communal structure and the formation of ancient states. It has been observed that it is precisely in these times that a crisis of mythological consciousness, as a collective tribal phenomenon, intensifies.

In addition to this, it must be acknowledged that the very presence of mythology and religion serves as a preliminary foundation for the birth of philosophy, as the earliest philosophers drew from these sources for worldview questions, images, and terminology to construct philosophical concepts. Scholars who specialize in the problem of philosophy’s genesis meticulously examine this process, revealing phases of pre-philosophy and genuine philosophy. The first phase is characterized by the gradual emergence of the individual subject from the initial dissolution within the collective tribal consciousness. The disintegration of the tribal system ruptured the initial worldview wholeness; as the socio-economic unity of the primitive community was fractured, the collective consciousness could no longer forge a new worldview coherence. In its place arises the worldview activity of the individual (the sage, the philosopher). This crisis concurrently impacts religion, leading to a loss of faith in the old gods and prompting a search for a new foundation of beliefs, marked by a transition from polytheism to monotheism. The creator of a new religion often shares a fate akin to that of the sage (the precursor to philosophy). Both initially undergo a profound personal crisis of worldview, reflecting the societal crisis at large. This critical stage may involve a temporary withdrawal from society, followed by a creative emergence from the crisis and a return to humanity with the intention of conveying the word of truth. The philosopher emerges as a new type of worldview center. Without relying on tradition, often in opposition to it, and lacking personal authoritative power, he proposes a new framework for organizing social life solely through rational argumentation, seeking to substantiate unity by referencing the singular order of the cosmos and the correspondence between macro- and microcosmos. The philosopher is convinced of the existence and accessibility for knowledge of universal laws that govern the rhythms of the cosmos, including the individual human being. The sage seeks out and proclaims to humanity the universal, fundamental laws governing the macro- and microcosmos, appealing to the reason of his fellow citizens. Ultimately, it can be stated that philosophy arises with the advent of a new type of subject—the sage as an individual.

One might observe that the period of ancient socio-cultural crises, the disintegration of the primitive communal structure, and the formation of the first states in history did not automatically give rise to philosophy from one day to the next; the temporal gap between these events was substantial. This can be addressed by noting that the crises themselves and the establishment of states were also prolonged over time, with the ideological framing of social changes taking considerable time to adapt old forms to new shifts. Thus, the search for adequate worldview frameworks often lagged behind the changes occurring. Additionally, for various historical reasons, some peoples advanced more rapidly than others in the development of philosophy. For instance, Ancient Egypt was among the earliest states in the world; however, philosophy as a system never fully materialized there, while in ancient Greece, a significantly younger civilization, philosophy emerged under different historical circumstances, drawing upon the wealth of Egyptian wisdom and scholarship.

A crucial condition for the inception of philosophy was the invention of the alphabet and linear writing, the development of written language traditions, and the proliferation of skills in written expression. On this foundation, artistic literature (the recording of epic poetry) emerged and developed, serving as a continuous treasury of metaphors for the initial formation of philosophical categories. Writing facilitated the retention of thought, allowing it to be transported across space and time, while the challenges associated with producing quality materials for recording fostered a capacity for succinct expression, refining the content density of the sage's phrases.

Philosophy emerged almost synchronously in the ancient East and West. Despite similarities in origins—such as the prior polarization of society, the movement of thought through the opposition of Chaos and Cosmos, good and evil, unity and multiplicity—the philosophical traditions in these opposing parts of the world exhibit considerable differences, prompting discussions about the existence of distinct types of philosophy. In the East, a particular focus was placed on affirming the unity of humanity and nature, with a prevailing moral-political orientation in philosophical works. The Eastern sage is primarily a teacher, making his lifestyle of paramount importance. The behavior of the teacher serves as a model for imitation. The language he employs is one of parables, and the concepts he utilizes retain a mythological character for an extended period.

In the West, philosophy begins simultaneously with the birth of rationalist thought in ancient Greece. Here, it decisively separates itself from mythology, even subjecting it to conscious criticism, undermining the tradition of trust in everyday “common sense.” A system of philosophical concepts emerges that is entirely devoid of mythological embellishment. While in the East, philosophy is often perceived as a personal endeavor, a matter of individual choice, in the West, each founder of a philosophical school is convinced of the discovery of universal foundations for the coexistence of all humanity.

Centuries of parallel existence between Eastern and Western philosophical traditions have solidified their differences, at times leading to the denial of the presence of not only original philosophy among Eastern peoples but philosophy altogether. Today, such a Eurocentric stance can be regarded as having been overcome, though it remains meaningful to discuss the specific historical types of philosophical thought—Eastern and Western.

Historical types of philosophy can also be delineated by linking their development to the progress of the entire historical process in the interconnectedness of its various elements (economic, social, political, cultural). In this case, the historical typology of philosophy aligns with recognized epochs: antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the Modern Age, which is adjacent to the Enlightenment. For the 19th-20th centuries, an additional period of rationalist classicism and non-classical philosophy can be identified.

Philosophy can also be categorized based on changes in its “centering.” “Centering” is a term indicating a generally accepted (or fashionable) form in which traditional philosophical problems are arranged. This is typically associated with shifts in cultural paradigms. Thus, in the historical development of philosophy, one can distinguish between cosmocentrism (where general problems of the universe, cosmos, and existence at the mega, macro, and micro levels are at the forefront), theocentrism (where all issues are examined within a religious framework, considering God), anthropocentrism (which emphasizes human-related issues), “scientific centrism” or scientism (from Latin scientia—science), and anti-scientism (irrationalism). During the early period of antiquity, philosophy was predominantly cosmocentric; later, the Sophists and Socrates initiated the first anthropological turn in philosophy, while Neoplatonism in the 3rd to 5th centuries inclined towards theocentrism. Medieval philosophy was also theocentric. Beginning in the 17th century, scientific centrism gained momentum, as science (natural philosophy) became a model of scientific rigor and organized knowledge.

The question of the existence of historical types of philosophy intersects with the issue of its national belonging. While the notion of historical type may overlook the national distinctiveness of philosophy, focusing instead on the general characteristics “ascribed” to a particular epoch, the concept of “national philosophy” highlights the regional diversity of philosophical life across humanity, both diachronically and synchronically. Eventually, every national culture articulates itself through philosophical thought. The presence of philosophy serves as a distinct indicator of a culture's maturity, its spirit, and its meta-language. To deny any people the potential to create their own philosophy, even in the future, is to underestimate their cultural potential and, indirectly, to deny them the existence of their own culture.

The founders of German classical philosophy justifiably took pride in the achievements of this ancient form of spiritual activity on their soil, and perhaps the uniqueness of its rise in Germany prompted them to reflect on the specifics of national philosophy as well as the primordial conditions for the emergence of philosophical thought. According to Hegel, a certain image of national philosophy corresponds to the character of a people, its morality, its state structure, and its form of governance, along with its civic life. The classic of Ukrainian historical-philosophical thought, D. I. Chizhevsky (1894-1977), pointed out that the distinctiveness of national philosophy is defined by the struggle of specific oppositions for different nations: in France—mysticism and rationalism; in England—empiricism and Platonism; in Germany—speculative and inductive methods; in Russia—religious tendencies and various forms of enlightenment. According to Chizhevsky, three primary elements characterize the peculiarities of a nation’s philosophy: the form of expression of philosophical ideas, the methods of philosophical inquiry, and the construction of philosophical systems and their architecture.