Non-Classical Philosophy in The West

Problematic Domains of Leading Contemporary Philosophical Trends

Philosophy of Life and Hermeneutics

The philosophy of life is not a distinct philosophical movement with a clear methodological position. It encompasses a diverse array of philosophers from various schools, unified by their occasional reference to the concept of “life” as a central theme. This includes figures such as Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911), Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900), Georg Simmel (1858-1918), Oswald Spengler (1880-1936), and José Ortega y Gasset (1883-1955). With some degree of latitude, they can be collectively understood through the notion that everything that exists is a manifestation of life as a fundamental reality, which is neither identical to spirit nor to matter, and which is grasped intuitively.

Dilthey aimed to establish the foundations of the “sciences of the spirit,” equating the concept of life with history. The first characteristic of the human world is that it is constructed as a historical realm. The common basis of the sciences of the spirit is life. “I employ the term life in the sciences of the spirit,” notes Dilthey, “solely in relation to the human world; thereby, the area of application of this word is already defined, excluding any erroneous interpretation. Life consists in the interaction of living beings.” (This refers specifically to human beings.) Life encompasses not only contemporary interpersonal relationships; it is a trans-temporal phenomenon, with time binding the phases of interconnection. Life is also inseparable from the experience of that same life. Experience not only accompanies the interconnectedness of human personalities; it also exists in understanding, in the re-experiencing of that which is penetrated by senses and intellect as experienced by others. Life and experience become the objective spirit, objectifying in institutions, the state, the church, religion, legal systems, philosophical and ethical doctrines, and in artistic and aesthetic works. The means by which one can comprehend such objectified systems is understanding through experience. Experience provides the opportunity to discover the spiritual. The second characteristic of the human world is its dynamic connection, which reduces values to goals. Dilthey believed there are three forms of the philosophical worldview: materialistic naturalism, objective idealism, and the idealism of freedom.

Simmel contended that we are incapable of transcending life and observing its manifestations from an external viewpoint. For this reason, the meaning of history cannot be defined scientifically; it is a matter of faith. In Henri Bergson (1859-1941), life is regarded as a cosmic force, a vital impulse that manifests in creativity.

As for hermeneutics, the name of this movement derives from the figure of Hermes in ancient Greek mythology, the mediator between gods and men: he was tasked with interpreting the commands of the gods to humans and the petitions of humans to the gods. Consequently, the term “hermeneutics” was initially employed in the sense of interpreting the utterances of oracles, ancient texts, signs, and symbols from foreign languages. In the Middle Ages, hermeneutics took the form of exegesis, which interpreted the Holy Scriptures. Philosophical hermeneutics developed over a prolonged period during the 19th and 20th centuries, with Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768-1834) considered its founder. He understood hermeneutics as a method for all humanities. Later, closer to the end of the 19th century, it intertwined, particularly in the works of Dilthey, with the philosophy of life.

Until recently, the most authoritative representative of this movement was the German philosopher Hans-Georg Gadamer (1900-2002), who proclaimed hermeneutics as a universal philosophy. It aims to address the question of how understanding of the world that surrounds us is possible, and how truth manifests in this understanding of being. The only way to comprehend the lived experience is to grasp it “from within.” The interpreter begins their study utilizing their prior (initial) understanding, their existing certain “prejudices.” To attain truth, the researcher engages in a continual dialogue with the “text,” with the surrounding world, and with the world of history. Dialogue with history is essential for understanding the present, as history lives within us.

Contemporary hermeneutics follows irrationalist traditions. For Gadamer, being is language. Only through language does truth reveal itself to humanity. Language constitutes the world in which we live, “forming” it. By proclaiming the essence of language as play, he perceives in play both the foundation and the essence of knowledge and understanding of history. The closer our understanding is to play, the more truthful it becomes. Gadamer employs the significant notion of the “hermeneutic circle,” which refers to the interplay between the interpreter and the historical text. With each cycle of engagement with the text, the interpreter approaches a more precise meaning.