Non-Classical Philosophy in The West

Problematic Domains of Leading Contemporary Philosophical Trends

Philosophical Anthropology, Freudianism, and Neo-Freudianism

Philosophical anthropology took shape in Germany after the First World War, with Max Scheler (1874-1928) recognized as one of its principal founders. He arrived at the conviction that the crisis of society in the twentieth century reflects a crisis of the individual, leading philosophy to focus on the fundamental question: “What is man?” Scheler identified the distinctive feature of humanity as a teleological orientation towards God, linking human conceptions of God to the experience of absolute value. In light of this, he proposed a classification of different types of values, which correspondingly delineated certain types of individuals characterized by predominant values, such as "virtuosos of pleasure," "engineers of civilization," "heroes," and "saints." Scheler argued that in the crisis-ridden society of his time, bourgeois values (such as the fanaticism of labor and profit) had become dominant, resulting in a narrowing of the horizon of human values. Thus, the significance of “knowledge of salvation” diminished. He asserted the necessity of creating a synthetic anthropology that could serve as the foundation for all knowledge about the world, as the mystery of the universe is concealed within humanity. According to Scheler, the task of philosophical anthropology is to demonstrate how all human achievements—society, state, language, science, and religion—derive from the structure of human existence.

Following Scheler, various interpretations of philosophical anthropology emerged. Proponents of the biological approach regarded humanity as a specific kind of animal, with its biological nature giving rise to social and historical characteristics. Arnold Gehlen (1904-1976), for instance, linked human nature to its biological unspecialization and the "distance" that exists between humanity and its natural environment. From this, Gehlen formulated a central thesis: “man is an unspecialized and, in this sense, primitive being,” suggesting that humanity is in some respect “incomplete.” He argued that all human activity serves as compensation for biological inadequacy, meaning any human achievements can be understood through this capacity for action. According to Gehlen, culture is merely an external backdrop to humanity’s biological nature.

The functionalist variant of philosophical anthropology is exemplified by the views of another German philosopher, Ernst Cassirer (1874-1945), who defined humanity as a being capable of creating symbols. He posited that one can only define humanity functionally rather than substantively, with the realm of the truly human being a system of human actions. The components of this sphere include language, myth, science, religion, and art, all of which collectively create a "symbolic universe." Humanity enters this universe as a function, an intersection of symbols, which are subject not to cognition but to interpretation.

The Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) established a highly authoritative variant of anthropology that throughout the twentieth century either absorbed others or overshadowed them. Freud referred to his doctrine as "psychoanalysis," which had two meanings: 1) a specialized method for treating nervous and mental illnesses; 2) a general theory of the human unconscious that aims to form the foundation for a modern understanding of humanity. Freud's primary contribution, recognized by both his supporters and critics, was the discovery of the unconscious and its role in human psychology and culture. He argued that the primary stimuli for human behavior often remain unconscious, existing as primal influences over the mind, where consciousness can be viewed as a superstructure resting upon an unconscious foundation. Within the structure of human psyche lie deep subconscious drives (the instincts of life and death), which govern the behavior of not only humans but all living beings. These drives program living organisms for self-preservation and reproduction. Fundamental instincts serve as the main source of psychic energy, manifesting in desires and the urge to act: the higher the level of psychic energy and the more active the living being, the more developed these instincts are. According to Freud, humans possess heightened psychic energy, whose uncontrolled expression can be detrimental to them. Fortunately, humanity has a system of preventive mechanisms, including the realm of personal consciousness that compels action based on the principle of reality, as well as a system of prohibitions (religious, moral, legal, and ethical norms) produced by society and culture that restrain, limit, and regulate instinctual expressions.

Freud inspired many Western scholars and thinkers to seek fundamental natural foundations for human existence and communication. Austrian physician and psychologist Alfred Adler (1870-1937), in analyzing various manifestations of neurosis in individuals, concluded that a neurotic state is characterized by a striving to overcome an “inferiority complex” arising from physical shortcomings or defects. This aspiration is fueled by a desire for superiority and self-affirmation to compensate for these physical inadequacies. Swiss psychiatrist and psychologist Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961) developed the concept of the “collective unconscious,” which refers to a repository of archetypes (primitive forms of understanding the world, some general patterns through which thoughts and feelings of all humanity are formed, encompassing a variety of mythological themes, fairy-tale characters, and plots) and instincts that are eternally inherited by all humankind. This collective unconscious forms the foundation upon which humanity and its culture stand, a legacy that revives within each individual consciousness.

Neo-Freudian representatives sought to synthesize Freud's ideas with insights from cultural anthropology and other social sciences. They no longer insisted on the exclusive role of the unconscious as a natural factor but took into account socio-cultural determinants as well. For instance, German-American philosopher Erich Fromm (1900-1980) argued that the motivating forces of human activity are a result of social processes, and that individual character is shaped by the dichotomies of human existence. Some of these dichotomies are existential, while others are historical. Among the dichotomies identified by Fromm are the distinctions between having and being, exploitation and submissiveness, negative “freedom from” and positive “freedom for,” as well as authoritarian and humanistic consciousness. American researcher Karen Horney (1885-1953) saw the origins of neuroses in the contradictions of cultural life, particularly between needs and the possibilities for their satisfaction. She pointed to four “major neuroses” of our time: the quest for love and approval at any cost; the pursuit of power, prestige, and possession; the neurosis of submissiveness (conformism); and neurosis of isolation (escapism).

The aforementioned examples of specialized philosophical-anthropological studies do not exclude the presence of analogous issues within other philosophical trends. Such concerns are also central to unique movements like existentialism and personalism.