General Information on Philosophy

Presentation of Philosophy

The study of philosophy constitutes an essential component of the comprehensive humanitarian education of our nation’s specialists in higher qualifications. This is due to the fact that philosophy has held, and continues to hold, a venerable position within the spiritual culture of all peoples throughout history. It has always been the case that, sensing the formidable power of philosophy, every notable figure in literature, art, science, and politics has sought, by any means, to grasp the philosophical ideas of their time. Not only those of their own era, for in the life activities of individuals dispersed through the generations, everything is interconnected, just as in the history of states and nations. All is in a state of continuity and inheritance. Philosophical thoughts that are prevalent today and may seem to some an absolute novelty are, in fact, tightly bound to the achievements of creative thought from past epochs. The most remarkable philosophical ideas, irrespective of the people from whom they originated, represent the accomplishments of all humanity—its spiritual treasures, which have been preserved through the centuries and attract all those who aspire to the heights of culture and seek answers to profound questions regarding the fundamental basis of human existence. Thus, mastering philosophical ideas that encapsulate the spiritual experience of humanity has long been an essential component of higher education.

The term "philosophy" is of Greek origin. Scholars attribute its first usage to the ancient Greek philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras, who believed that only the divine could be considered wise, while humanity could only aspire to be philosophical, or a "lover of wisdom" (which is the translation of the Greek term). Philosophers are those who have a proclivity towards wisdom, who gravitate towards it. Wise individuals have always been revered among people. From ancient times, every individual has come to recognize through their own experience that a person illuminated by wisdom possesses an enhanced discernment, an understanding of what is substantial and hidden from the majority, and in their judgments regarding human actions, they seek truth, justice, and the promotion of good upon the earth.

There exist numerous approaches to the initial presentation of philosophy in both educational and specialized scientific literature. For instance, one could further develop the idea that philosophy represents a kind of wisdom manifested in well-reasoned expressions weighed against the scales of truth and goodness, as well as in actions that align with the justified position of the wisdom's bearer. In this case, it would be worthwhile to delve into the distinctions between the philosopher-sage, the illiterate gray-bearded peasant sage, the devout hermit sage, and so forth. Following the establishment and development of modern science, attempts to present philosophy through comparisons with science have become more frequent. Some assert that philosophy, traversing through time from primitive forms to developed ones, ultimately advances alongside the collective progress of all sciences, with its specificity regarding subject matter and methods of study being no more distinct from natural science than history or linguistics. Others, conversely, have emphasized the differences between philosophy and natural science, often motivated by attempts to dissolve philosophy within the natural sciences, encapsulated in the slogan, "Each science is philosophy unto itself."

The tradition of presenting philosophy as a particular type of worldview remains widespread. A worldview is understood to be a system of general perspectives on the world and humanity's place within it, on the relations of humans to the surrounding reality and to themselves; it encompasses the most generalized views on the meaning of life and the objectives of human existence. Here, we refer not to sight in the literal sense, but to a certain type of knowledge characterized by wholeness, varying degrees of completeness, and its relation to humanity, to its interests and aspirations. Despite some reservations regarding the inappropriateness of restricting philosophy solely to its worldview function, it seems that the conception of philosophy as a worldview offers greater opportunities to consider all its other characteristics. For example, when science was still in its infancy and played virtually no role in shaping worldviews, philosophy represented all that was rational and sober in understanding the world. Even when science gained authority and filled nearly the entire corpus of knowledge about the surrounding world with its conclusions, philosophy nonetheless retained its significance as a worldview, since science does not exhaust all that captivates human interest in the world. Thus, let us discuss philosophy precisely as a type of worldview.

More often than not, we speak of three historical types of worldview—myth, religion, and philosophy. We will briefly examine them in comparison, identifying both commonalities and specific distinctions among them. This endeavor is not simple, as there exist numerous perspectives on both myth and religion, as well as philosophy.

In the history of humanity, the mythological worldview appears first. Many Western European thinkers adhered to the approaches of ancient Greek philosophers regarding myths, interpreting them as deifications of historical figures, embodiments of natural phenomena, or personifications of abstract concepts. Some perceived myths as history transformed into tales, while others, conversely, viewed tales as transformed history. In the 17th century, the English philosopher Francis Bacon posited that myths contained ancient philosophy, scientific knowledge, and moral guidance, albeit concealed through symbols and allegories. Bacon believed that a "philosophical interpretation of ancient myths and parables as a science ought to be established." The symbolic theory of myth became quite widespread, although many discrepancies persisted.

Despite extensive study of myths over a prolonged period, there remains no universally accepted definition of myth, nor complete clarity regarding its relationship to religion and philosophy. It suffices to note that there are currently several hundred definitions of myth. To avoid becoming mired in the intricate details of differences among specialists, we will preliminarily adopt a fairly acceptable version: a myth is a fantastical invention that explains the origin or essence of a certain subject or phenomenon by attributing human qualities and characteristics to it. In interpreting the nature of myth, one must guard against the error of ascribing to it qualities and functions that do not belong to it. At times, it is suggested that even in primitive myth, one might see (and Bacon would likely agree) a philosophical interpretation of the world; others argue that myth serves as an interpretation of rituals, while a third group claims it is an unreflected artistic processing of nature and society.

Myth can be viewed as a characteristic and predominant form of cognition within the primitive consciousness through which all peoples have passed. It is a universal form of consciousness, combining the rudiments of truthful knowledge, religious fabrications, art, and morality. Myth not only explained the phenomena of the world but also consolidated the primitive agglomeration of individuals into a unified community; thus, it was multifunctional, merging reality and fantasy, thought and emotion, knowledge and faith. In the mythological consciousness, the individual subject had not yet been separated; it represented collective thought and experience. Furthermore, it is important to emphasize that through myth, individuals felt themselves united with the surrounding world; they did not distinguish themselves from either nature or their kin.

Another historical type of worldview is religion. Characteristic of religion is the division of the world into the earthly, the mundane, the natural, and the supernatural, the otherworldly. The foundation of religion is the belief in the existence of supernatural forces that influence earthly affairs, and the task of humanity is to seek a connection with those forces for personal benefit. The religious worldview is also a complex amalgamation, comprising beliefs, emotional experiences, and ritualistic actions, all imbued with faith in the supernatural. Each religion encompasses cosmogonic, anthropological, and ethnogenetic notions, moral and aesthetic canons, as well as political and legal norms.

Now, let us turn to philosophy. What connects it to and distinguishes it from other types of worldviews? All worldviews are united by a similar purpose—to provide a comprehensive vision of the world, to form an understanding of the relationship between humanity and the surrounding environment, and to elucidate the goals and meanings of human life. However, they respond to these questions in fundamentally different ways. In mythology, humanity is intertwined with the world, where abstract thinking is only beginning to form, resulting in a predominance of artistic and imaginative thought. Knowledge is likewise undifferentiated, combining the real and the fantastical. In contrast, religion divides the world, perceiving it as fragmented. Yet, within developed world religions, the idea of the unity of all people emerges, their sameness in origin, essence, and purpose. Crucially, religion relies on faith, on an uncritical acceptance of dogmas.

Philosophy, however, is a systematic contemplation of the surrounding world and humanity founded upon the critical strength of individual reason. It can also be expressed as knowledge of the world and humanity articulated in concepts. One might wonder: do mythological and religious worldviews form entirely without the participation of reason? Is there nothing rational in them? Certainly, such a claim cannot be made. Myth and religion undoubtedly possess a rational element, but they are more accurately products of collective reason, the results of which are not always consciously recognized by the individual, and they do not anticipate a critical assessment from the consumer of mythological and religious concepts; the latter are accepted on faith. Furthermore, the rationality that does exist within them is not presented in a direct form—such as concepts with straightforward meanings—but is concealed behind fantastical images. In contrast, the philosopher, from the outset, refuses to be a mere medium, a mechanical instrument for transmitting mythological or religious narratives. Philosophy is always intertwined with the personal critical thought of each individual thinker, which implies that the emergence of philosophy necessitates the formation of an individual subject of knowledge.

The outcomes of philosophical inquiry possess their own specificity. Typologically, philosophical knowledge is wisdom, or “sophia.” The ancient Greeks, who coined this term, had many words to denote various types of knowledge, including ἐπιστήμη (scientific knowledge, primarily about nature), γνώσις (knowledge, general awareness through learning), μάθημα (knowledge of numbers, mathematical knowledge), τέχνη (technical or technological knowledge, knowledge about the art of creating certain artifacts), and σοφία (knowledge-wisdom). When discussing sophian knowledge, its defining characteristic is that it is never external to the individual; it embodies an understanding of the higher mysteries of being, an experience of truth that pertains to the strategy of human existence in the world, and serves as a justification of personal stance regarding one’s relationship with the world and actions within it. To attain sophian knowledge means to experience the enchantment of the truth revealed to the individual, to marvel at the simplicity and charm of the cosmos. Perhaps this is why Aristotle noted that philosophy begins with wonder.

In the philosophical creative process and the knowledge that concludes it, one can delineate two more or less distinct components. The first is the very enchantment connected with the discovery of the mystery of being. Such revelations often occur at the edge of intuition. After prolonged contemplation, the essence of being suddenly reveals itself to the philosopher, condensing into a simple, clear formula of a general nature, for example, “All things exchange for fire, and fire for all things” (Heraclitus), “In truth, there are only atoms and void” (Democritus), “The world is my representation” (A. Schopenhauer). The second component is the logical structure that meticulously details and establishes all relationships concerning the world, crafted according to the rules of proof and deduction, emerging as a consequence of the same formula. This part depends on the philosopher’s talent, giftedness, logical acumen, literary flair, breadth of perspective, and education.

Each of these two components shapes the image of philosophy and the philosopher, a portrayal that has repeatedly been depicted in works of art, for instance, in the creations of Raphael, Rembrandt, Fragonard, Rodin, and other artists. The formulation of the essence of being in a concise phrase is the result of a long and arduous personal quest, a painful daily reflection. The truth revealed to the philosopher captivates him for life, rendering him obsessed, steadfast in his convictions, and bestowing upon him an outward appearance reflective of one who knows the higher mysteries. Such an individual seems to rise above the mundane human everyday existence while simultaneously immersing himself in eternal questions: What is the surrounding world? What is the “I”? What is the meaning of my existence and that of the world?

The second component also paints its own portrait of philosophy. Over the centuries, a distinctive tradition of philosophizing has developed, along with its own conceptual apparatus, terminology, and means of proof. In other words, everything that distinguishes philosophical texts from any other has emerged. However, this does not imply a unification of style. More or less significant thinkers always imbue their works with their unique personal imprint. The phrase “style is man” fully resonates with the philosophy. Upon reading a page of a philosophical text, an experienced reader can immediately recognize the author: Spinoza or Hegel, Nietzsche or Sartre, Plato or Seneca.