The Main Spheres of Social Life: The Social Sphere of Society

Leading Aspects of Analysis of Social Structure

The social structure of society can be examined from three perspectives: functional, organizational, and the orientation of social actions.

The functional aspect entails an analysis of the system of forms of social activity that ensures the functioning and development of the whole. Here, the units of analysis are individual sectors of societal labor development and social institutions. The division of labor within society signifies the differentiation of diverse social functions carried out by specific groups of individuals. In this context, various sectors of society are distinguished, such as industry, agriculture, administration, science, services, the military, and the police. The manifestation of labor division is the exchange of activities in its qualitatively diverse, historically conditioned forms. Technical division of labor refers to its grading according to the realization of partial functions or operations performed by different individuals. While there is a connection between the societal-professional division and the technical division of labor, they differ in origin and nature.

The term "division of labor" is used to denote the specialization of production within a country and among different countries, which is accordingly captured by such terms as territorial and international division of labor. The evolution of the division of labor depends on the development and transformation of productive forces and production relations. It is also influenced by demographic situations, the emergence of new needs within society, and general functions that complicate the structure of society. The division of labor is a necessary process that creates connections and dependencies between individuals and facilitates the exchange of activities among them. The emergence of the state, the dichotomy between urban and rural settings, and the distinction between mental and physical labor are all outcomes of this division. However, as society moves towards a post-industrial organization, these oppositions become increasingly blurred. Automation and computerization render labor more universal and intellectual, gradually diminishing narrow professional specialization. Nevertheless, the challenge of humanizing the content and form of labor processes remains relevant today.

Social institutions are specific entities that provide relative stability to social ties and relationships within the social organization of society. They can be characterized from both external and internal perspectives. Externally, a social institution comprises a collection of individuals and establishments possessing certain material resources and performing specific social functions. From a substantive standpoint, it represents a prescribed set of purpose-oriented behavioral standards for individuals in particular situations. For instance, justice (as a social institution) can be described externally as the assembly of individuals, institutions, and material resources that administer justice, while from the content perspective, it consists of standardized behavioral patterns of authorized persons fulfilling this social function. These behavioral standards are enacted through specific social roles typical of the justice system (such as judges, prosecutors, lawyers, etc.). Moreover, a social institution is a particular organization of social activity and social relationships, executed according to behavioral standards, the emergence and grouping of which into a system are determined by the resolution of specific tasks by the institution.

Each social institution is characterized by the presence of a clear objective, specific functions that facilitate its achievement, corresponding social positions and roles typical of that institution, and a system of sanctions that encourages desired behavior while deterring deviations.

Among the primary social institutions are several categories:

Firstly, political institutions that establish and uphold political power (the state, political parties, the military, police or militia, courts, etc.).

Secondly, economic institutions that oversee the processes of production and distribution of goods and services (enterprises, the service sector, financial institutions, etc.).

Thirdly, the family, whose activities (relationships between parents, between parents and children, methods and forms of upbringing, etc.) are governed by a system of legal and moral norms.

In addition to the aforementioned, social-cultural institutions (the education system, healthcare, cultural-educational and scientific institutions, religious institutions, etc.) play a significant role in societal life. For example, higher education as a social institution encompasses ministry workers, faculty, administration, student organizations, students (cadets), and student self-governance bodies. The primary social function of higher education is to meet society’s need for the training of highly qualified specialists. Consequently, the foundation of any social institution's functioning is to satisfy specific social needs within society. However, there may arise situations where social needs are inadequately reflected in the structure and functions of the respective social institutions. This incongruence may lead to dysfunctions within the activities of a given institution, manifesting in both external, formal (organizational) spheres and in the nature and content of their operations.

External dysfunctions of a social institution may manifest as a lack of trained personnel, material resources, or organizational misunderstandings. From a content perspective, dysfunctions in a social institution's activities may express themselves as uncertainty, ambiguity in operations, or a loss of authority and prestige. Such dysfunctions, for instance, in the operations of economic institutions can result in shadow effects in the economy, speculation, theft, fraud, and so forth.

The organizational aspect. Organization is a system of connections that form various types of social groups characteristic of a specific social system. The units of analysis here are collectives, organizations, and their structural elements. This aspect of analysis necessitates the determination of the strength of subordination and coordination ties (both vertically and horizontally) among the structural elements of a particular social group. For example, characterizing the state of the family as one of the most crucial elements of society in contemporary Ukraine requires noting the trend towards its disintegration. For a variety of objective and subjective reasons, a breakdown in connections between parents and children is occurring. This process is negatively influenced by the state itself, which currently fails to create the necessary material-economic, legal, spiritual-cultural, and socio-psychological conditions to adequately support the development needs of the family. This situation, in turn, can be seen as a factor adversely affecting the nation-building process in Ukraine, as the family, as a social institution, bears critical functions:

— to create conditions for the reproduction and socialization of individuals; the birth of children, their care, upbringing, and education;

— to satisfy a significant portion of physical and spiritual needs, the foremost of which is the need for happiness;

— to serve not only as a form of communal life but also as a genuine dimension of individual existence, in which one realizes essential personal qualities, and so forth.

It is well known that when society fails to adequately provide for the organizational, material, and spiritual development of the family, it deprives itself of a future.

Thus, society is organizationally represented by state and non-state institutions; legislative, executive, and judicial branches of power, and public societies.

The aspect of social action orientation (both collective and individual) operates with units such as objectives and means, motives and incentives, norms and standards, programs, subprograms, etc. Each of the three mentioned aspects should be considered not in isolation, but in dialectical unity and interconnection. At the same time, each is characterized by relative autonomy and permits both theoretical and empirical levels.

The historical reflection of the social structure of society occurs in several stages:

— in the first stage, an analysis of individual units and collectives (leaders, administrations) is conducted;

— in the second stage, the analysis focuses on particular types of social organizations (political parties, classes, etc.);

— in the third stage, society is analyzed as an integrative unity (in the contemporary period).

Conventionally, two primary models of social structure are distinguished—categorical and normative-value.

The categorical model is based on the premise that social structure is determined by the dominant mode of production, which incites contradictions among various elements of this structure. It is upon such foundations that the Marxist social conception is built. According to this concept, social structure is linked to the distribution of societal labor and ownership of the means of production. It is characterized by the division of society into classes that change alongside transformations in socio-economic formations. One version of the categorical model is the concept of technological determinism. Its proponents perceive the source of social structure formation and development in technological innovations and believe that technological progress is capable of resolving all contradictions in developed society.

The normative-value model is founded on the recognition that the basis for the existence of social structuring of society and the source of its changes lies in the system of culture, which includes values, meanings, beliefs, symbols, and so forth. Consequently, social structure consists of various social formations that differ in cultural-value orientations. Such formations include social institutions, role and status relationships, social communities, and more. A significant contribution to the development of the normative-value model was made by M. Weber, who viewed social structure as a multi-dimensional system, positing that alongside classes and property relations, social status and power play essential roles in society.