Ancient Philosophy

Sophistry, or Man as the Measure of All Things

In the second half of the 5th century and the first half of the 4th century BCE, the status of the philosopher in Greece underwent a profound transformation, and the orientation of philosophical thought shifted significantly, broadening its scope. Society developed a demand for mastery of language, eloquence, and the ability to publicly assert one's correctness by appealing to judges and fellow citizens in defense of one's interests. This demand was precisely what the so-called sophists catered to—teachers who, for a fee, instructed their listeners in the art of verbal combat. The term "sophist" derives from Greek, meaning expert, sage, or master. Earlier philosophers did not refer to themselves as sages, but rather as those who loved and revered divine wisdom. However, now there was a desire for something practical, and those emerging from philosophical circles undertook to teach wisdom, somewhat presumptuously believing they themselves were endowed with it.

While earlier philosophers sought unconditional being beyond humanity, the sophists contended that nothing unconditional exists outside of human perception. Early natural philosophers, the "physicists," sought the meaning of cosmic order in the elements, preoccupied with finding the world’s first principle. Yet these inquiries led to insurmountable contradictions and prompted doubts about whether human reason could resolve them convincingly and validate its beliefs. This inevitably led to questions about humanity, the strength of arguments, and individual interests. According to Protagoras, "Man is the measure of all things—of things that are, as they are, and of things that are not, as they are not." Whereas thinkers like Parmenides had previously dismissed the universal significance of sensory evidence—asserting that each person's senses are distinct and arguing over which is more accurate is absurd—Protagoras extended this argument to anything that exists. Truth is subjective, relative to each individual, and there is nothing absolute. Moreover, some questions may remain altogether unsolvable. "Concerning the gods," Protagoras admits, "I cannot say anything—whether they exist or not; the matter is obscure, and our life is short, thus much eludes human understanding."

Yet, if nothing holds universal significance and truth is merely subjective certainty in some belief, which can be imposed upon an individual, then for the sophist, the question of reason reduces to the skillfulness of this imposition. Truth lies in the ability to triumph in verbal contests.

The sophists, recognizing their absolute freedom from any external factor, sought to acquire power and dominance over the masses through their own energy. Society should be a tyranny of energetic individuals over the dark masses—this is the political creed of sophistry.

An alternative response to the skepticism regarding the capacity of reason to argue the validity of its beliefs was provided by Socrates, whose position in discussions with the sophists initiated a path along which philosophical thought would predominantly progress throughout its development.