Ancient Philosophy

The Philosophy of the Hellenistic Era

The philosophy of the Hellenistic era (3rd century BCE — 6th century CE) can be divided into two periods: early and late Hellenism. Early Hellenism, or the Greek period (3rd to 1st century BCE), is often associated with the reign of Alexander the Great and linked to the decline of the Greek city-states. During this time, philosophical focus shifted from political matters to moral and ethical issues. The Hellenistic period is characterized by several main schools of thought:

— Cynics (Socratic school) emphasized individualism and asceticism;
— Epicureans were the first to divide logic into rhetoric and dialectic;
— Stoics categorized philosophy into physics, logic, and ethics;
— Skeptics questioned the possibility of certain knowledge;
— Neoplatonism represents the culmination of ancient thought while also marking the beginning of a new doctrine. In Neoplatonism, the absolute being that creates and governs all, rather than the sensory-material cosmos, is the foundation of existence. This position was partially adopted by Christianity.

Late Hellenism, or the Roman period (1st century BCE — 6th century CE), concludes ancient philosophy and encompasses the entirety of Roman philosophical thought. Overall, philosophy during this period continued the trends established in early Hellenism. The same philosophical schools persisted, and the issues they contemplated underwent little change. However, philosophers writing in Latin began to play a significant role in philosophy. They were less concerned with questions of existence and the nature of the world; instead, they focused on how to structure human life to avoid dangers and misfortunes. Philosophy became a means of freeing individuals from fear, anxiety, delusion, and the uncertainties of the surrounding world. Among philosophical directions, Neoplatonism remained the most influential until the end of ancient philosophy.

Hellenistic philosophy is characterized by a series of features that distinguish it from classical antiquity. Ancient philosophy began with a focus on physical problems, and during the classical period, physics and ethics were balanced within the systems of Plato and Aristotle. In the Hellenistic period, the study of nature was relegated to a secondary role and subordinated to ethics as a means of achieving a good life. Even studies in natural science were aimed solely at providing peace of mind and alleviating fears. During this time, philosophy began to diverge into distinct sciences, with Alexandria, home to the Museum and the renowned library, becoming the center of development. In late ancient philosophy, a greater emphasis than in the classical period was placed on inner self-exploration, reflection, and the pursuit of individual moral freedom within the authoritarian, monarchical state that replaced the democratic city-states of classical Greek history.

Thus, a defining characteristic of Hellenistic philosophy was its heightened interest in the individual and their personal, pressing problems. Achieving self-sufficiency and inner peace became the primary goals proclaimed by the sages of the time. Each philosophical school of the Hellenistic era carved its own path toward this goal. Most of them trace their origins back to the so-called Socratic schools, named for their continuation of the issues raised by Socrates and their influence from the thinker.

One of the most well-known Socratic schools was the school of the Cynics (from Greek "kynos," meaning dog), whose philosophers believed that limiting one's desires (asceticism) was a prerequisite for achieving a free and happy life. According to the Cynics, the main goal of humanity lies in the pursuit of virtue, which constitutes true happiness.

By calling themselves "citizens of the world," the Cynics proclaimed equality and inner freedom as ideals of human life, disregarding material wealth and advocating for a simple life with minimal possessions, which they believed could be attained through the physical labor of all citizens.

Antisthenes (c. 440-366 BCE), a student of the sophist Gorgias and later of Socrates, founded the Cynic school. He was a critic of Plato's philosophy, opposing his theory of ideas with his own doctrine of the existence of only the individual (particular) rather than the general. He was the first to define the concept of "idea": "An idea is what reveals what a particular object is." Notable sayings of Antisthenes include: "Do not neglect your enemies; they notice your mistakes first," and "States perish when they can no longer distinguish good people from bad."

Diogenes of Sinope (c. 412-323 BCE) was a vivid proponent and popularizer of Cynic philosophy. He led an extremely ascetic lifestyle (living in a tub and wearing only a short cloak) and held a disdainful attitude toward culture and wealth, as the Cynics believed that riches are acquired dishonestly, leading to a general decline in morality.

Once, when asked, "When does the world prosper?" Diogenes replied, "When kings philosophize and philosophers rule."

Eventually, the Cynic school merged into Stoic philosophy, and the best ideas of the Cynics were absorbed into Stoicism—a more complete, refined, and perfected philosophical doctrine. The Cynic school saw a revival in Rome in the 1st century and lasted until the 4th century.

The next two schools of the Hellenistic period—Epicureans and Stoics—were founded simultaneously.

Epicureanism. Epicurus (c. 342-271 BCE) was a native of the island of Samos and a student of Nausiphanes, a follower of Democritus. He established his philosophical school in Mytilene (310 BCE). The school, later moved to Athens, was known as the "Garden of Epicurus," as it was located in a garden owned by the philosopher. Notably, the school also accepted women and slaves as students.

Many fragments of Epicurus's philosophical works have survived, allowing us to categorize his ideas as follows: logic, or canonics—where the philosopher articulated criteria for truth and falsehood, desirability and undesirability (all verified through sensory experience, manifesting as pleasure or pain); physics, or the study of nature—echoing the views of Democritus, who posited that the world consists of atoms and void. Epicurus hypothesized that the universe was created through the spontaneous motion of atoms colliding in space during their descent; ethics, where he considered prudence the highest good. According to Epicurus (just like Aristotle), the most prudent of pleasures is friendship.

Being in a close circle of friends provides tranquility, balance, and the joy of the soul (pleasure) that constitutes the essence of human life, according to Epicurus. Only a virtuous person can attain such an ideal, and to be virtuous, one must possess the wisdom to avoid enemies and live unobtrusively from the envious.

For Epicurus, pleasure is fundamentally the absence of pain and suffering. The desire to acquire wealth and fame also deprives individuals of pleasure, as such pursuits compel them to expend excessive effort and overcome numerous obstacles. Consequently, Epicurus advises against engaging in public life, for failures, like any success, generate a multitude of problems. The elimination of suffering and fear becomes the primary goal for Epicureans. They identify two sources of fear: superstitions rooted in religion and the fear of death. Regarding the former, despite Epicurus’s materialistic leanings, he did not deny the existence of gods, as he could not explain the very idea of their existence. However, in Epicurus’s view, the gods reside apart from the world and are unconcerned with human affairs; they do not intervene in human life. Humans inhabit a world governed by the laws of nature, which can be understood, yet they also possess free will and can to some extent determine their own fate.

The overcoming of the fear of death occurs through the conviction that the human soul is composed of material particles, akin to the breath of warmth. At the moment of death, the soul dissolves, yet the atoms that compose it persist, losing their capacity to feel. Thus, death bears no relation to the individual, for what has decayed cannot feel, and that which cannot feel has no connection to us. Therefore, it is futile to fear what does not exist. This attitude towards death requires profound philosophical reflection and finds a new interpretation in Stoicism.

Epicurus and his disciples led not only a contemplative but also a rather ascetic lifestyle, despite the fact that Epicurus regarded the attainment of pleasure and enjoyment as a fundamental condition for achieving happiness. For instance, Epicureans asserted that acute physical suffering is always transient, and if it persists, it can be overcome through rational discipline and by focusing on pleasant thoughts while disregarding the sensation of pain. If a person is hungry, then bread and water are entirely sufficient to satisfy their need for sustenance.

A retreat into personal life is a typical manifestation of the individualism sought by the philosophers of the Hellenistic era. In particular, Epicureans proclaimed pleasure—hedone (from which the term hedonism is derived)—as the highest good, which consists in satisfying essential needs and achieving a state of mental equilibrium (ataraxia, literally meaning carefree, untroubled) and, consequently, happiness (eudaimonia). According to Epicurus, philosophy is indeed intended to secure for humanity a happy life.

The central tenet of Epicurus is his exhortation to avoid societal and political engagement and to live unobtrusively. Such noninterference is a guarantee of safety, and safety serves as the highest ethical criterion. Thus, philosophy becomes for Epicureans an art of living securely.

Stoicism. Ancient philosophy during the classical period concerned itself not with the individual in isolation but rather in the capacity in which he formed part of the all-encompassing whole of the cosmos or the polis. This approach was characteristic of the Greco-Roman philosophical school of the Stoics, whose name is derived from the "Painted Porch"—a covered colonnade adorned with a gallery of paintings in Athens, where its founders convened.

The Stoics aimed to cultivate an unyielding and self-sufficient individual, capable of safeguarding himself against various adversities and societal changes related to the conquests and empire-building of their time.

Stoicism persisted for over 500 years (from the early Hellenistic period to the era of the Roman Empire). This extensive period can be divided into the Early (Zeno of Citium), Middle (Panaetius, Posidonius), and Late (Seneca, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius) Stoa. Similar to the views of Epicurus, the Stoics exhibit a clear division of their doctrine into three parts—physics, logic, and ethics. It is ethics (not without influence from the Cynics) that became the focal point of Stoic philosophical thought.

In physics, the Stoics revived Heraclitus’s cosmological teachings and his materialistic conceptions of the world’s fundamental essence—fire. The process of the world emerging from the creative first fire and its demise in a great cosmic conflagration repeats eternally and exhibits a cyclical nature. The concept by which the Stoics characterized this first fire was expressed as “breath,” “spirit,” or in Greek, pneuma. It originated in the heavens and spread throughout the universe as a warm breath, which is inhaled by animals and humans while cooling in the inorganic realm. For the Stoics, the first fire represents not only a blind force and the eternal Heraclitean Logos but also Providence. The Logos, or God, manifests everywhere in nature and the world, permeating it (pantheism), and serves, for the Stoics, as the law of necessity. The belief in Providence reveals itself in the perception of all natural processes as having their causes, while for humanity, this belief evolves into fatalism.

In the Stoics’ epistemology (logic), the central issue is the problem of truth. The soul (pneuma) also serves as the bearer of knowledge; it is where the capacity for understanding and thought resides, which connects the individual to the entirety of the cosmos. The individual intellect is viewed merely as a part of the universal intellect.

Stoic ethics identifies virtue as the sole good, expressed in its four manifestations: wisdom, temperance, justice, and courage. These virtues stand opposed to their respective four vices: folly, debauchery, injustice, and cowardice. The ethical rigor of early Stoicism excludes intermediate states between virtue and vice, good and evil. The influence of Aristotle on Stoic philosophy is evident in their list of ethical virtues, to which the Stoics added industriousness. Nevertheless, the ideal of the Stoic remains a state of inner peace and imperturbability—apatheia.

Zeno of Citium (334-262 BCE), a student of the Cynic Crates, founded the Stoic school in Athens in 300 BCE. Under the influence of Socratic thought, he developed a doctrine of a universal state founded on the idea of universal equality: of free citizens and slaves, the wealthy and the poor, men and women, as well as Greeks and barbarians. All are to become sages, guided by reason and living in harmony with nature.

Panaetius (circa 180-100 BCE) represents the Middle Stoa, his teachings being interpreted as Stoic Platonism. His admiration for Platonic philosophy led to a significant softening of Stoic rigorism. For example, Panaetius proclaimed utility as the primary ethical principle, with the fulfillment of reason’s dictates as life’s goal. Leading the school in Athens (129 BCE), he taught that humanity is a component of the cosmos, held the world to be eternal, and viewed souls as mortal.

Posidonius (circa 135-51 BCE) was the most prominent representative of the Middle Stoa, a teacher to noble Romans (including Pompey and Cicero), widely knowledgeable and a proponent of the philosophies of Pythagoras, Plato, and Aristotle, which he sought to integrate with the ideas of the Ancient Stoa. According to Posidonius, the function of philosophy is to maintain the connection between the Logos and humanity, which must follow the Logos. The body obstructs such connectivity; hence the soul is not only immortal but also reincarnates (in line with the Platonic theory of the transmigration of souls, which can perceive ideas in higher realms) when the fiery world once again divides into spheres suitable for embodiment. For Posidonius, humanity is the unity of soul and body, the source of divine pneuma. Once freed from the body, the soul (in the form of flame) exists in a disembodied state, awaiting the fulfillment of the next cosmic cycle.

Seneca (circa 4 BCE — 65 CE) was a Roman politician, writer, orator, and teacher of the young Emperor Nero. He considered the pursuit of self-improvement and virtue as the highest values for humanity. According to Seneca, a wise person should live in harmony with nature, submit to their own fate, resist no obstacles, and gracefully endure trials, all while maintaining absolute inner tranquility.

Epictetus (50-135 CE) was a slave of Nero’s guard who gained his freedom after the emperor’s death. Like Zeno, he advocated for the equality of all people and viewed the attainment of happiness as dependent on following reason and liberating oneself from passions. Mirroring Socrates, he left no writings; his teachings were transmitted through his student Flavius Arrianus. He frequently repeated his first maxim: “Bear and forbear!” The second, inscribed on the wall of the library of the renowned French philosopher Michel de Montaigne, reads: “It is not things that disturb people, but their judgments about things.”

Marcus Aurelius (121-180 CE), a Roman emperor, disciple and follower of Seneca’s philosophy, authored the treatise Meditations, which is now housed in the Vatican Library. Since human reason is of divine origin, all individuals are inherently equal; for Marcus Aurelius, happiness is achieved through understanding and recognizing the rationality of the universal law that governs the world. Among his most notable aphorisms are: “If you are disturbed by something external, the fault lies not in the thing itself, but in your judgment about it, and you have the power to change that judgment”; “Let not the despair or joy of others seize you”; “Whatever happens to you was predetermined from the very beginning.”

Skepticism posited the unknowability of the world and the necessity of doubt regarding any assertions about it. The term “skepticism,” derived from Greek, means “inquiry,” “examination,” “reflection,” and “doubt.” Skeptics claimed that human judgments about things are arbitrary and unprovable, advocating for abstention from all judgments altogether. This abstention from judgment encapsulates the essence of the renowned skeptical notion of epoché. Sometimes, ancient skepticism, as seen in the works of the Academic Carneades, took on the form of prohabilism. Through numerous examples, skeptics illustrated the limitations and relativity of any knowledge.

The founder of ancient skepticism was Pyrrho (360-270 BCE), hailing from Elis, where he served as the high priest, and a student of the philosopher Democritus, Anaxarchus of Abdera. He served in Alexander the Great's army and participated in his military campaigns. Pyrrho articulated the ideal conduct of the skeptic as complete imperturbability (ataraxia), apathy (apatheia), and even indifference toward all existence, achieving reconciliation with everything occurring around: “If one and the same thing were perceived simultaneously as both beautiful and wise, there would be no hostile disputes among people.”

It is said of Pyrrho that once, while aboard a ship caught in a storm, the passengers began to show concern for their lives. Pyrrho pointed to a pig calmly eating at that moment: “Thus should the wise man remain imperturbable.”

During the Hellenistic period, many representatives of academic philosophy, those teaching at the Academy founded by Plato, joined skepticism. Enesidemus (circa 1st century BCE), a figure of Roman skepticism, formulated ten tropes (arguments) against the possibility of any knowledge, ultimately leading skeptics to agnosticism. Enesidemus saw skepticism as an alternative to all prevailing dogmatic philosophical doctrines. The critique from such students prompted skeptics to engage in meticulous study of these doctrines, rendering their efforts historically significant in philosophy.

Sextus Empiricus (late 2nd century CE), a physician and philosopher, is known for his works Against the Professors and Pyrrhonian Discourses. He critiqued the primary philosophical, mathematical, and astronomical concepts of his time. Sextus believed that happiness is attained through abstention from judgments, adherence to traditions and laws, and the ability to navigate everyday life guided by one's perceptions and natural inclinations. According to Empiricus, life should be active and calm, not dictated by dogmatic prescriptions.

In their endeavor to assert “nothing” and to “doubt everything,” skeptics, ultimately, did not recognize how they fell into a trap: for by questioning EVERYTHING, they must also doubt their own precepts.

Neoplatonism emerged as the last significant doctrine born of ancient philosophy, arising during a period of systemic crisis in Greco-Roman civilization. For a time, neoplatonism posed a serious challenge to the spread of Christianity. Its founder, Plotinus (203-269), was born and lived for a long time in Egypt, later moving to Rome, where he became close to the imperial court. Plotinus authored a series of treatises that are quite complex, containing subtle dialectical reflections on fundamental issues of ontology, psychology, and theology; he developed a religious strand within Platonism, emphasizing mysticism. Although Plotinus considered himself a follower of Plato, he created an original philosophical system that bears little resemblance to Plato's teachings.

While elements of mysticism were episodically present in Plato's own doctrine, Plotinus's entire philosophy is a mystical teaching intertwined with religion. His mysticism seeks to transcend the corporeal and liberate the spirit from the dominion of the physical by way of mystical ecstasy. Plotinus's aspiration toward the ideal and disdain for matter reached a point where he felt ashamed of his own body and forbade the celebration of his birthday. A further distinction between the systems of Plato and Plotinus is that Plato's philosophy expresses social aspirations (the construction of an ideal state), whereas Plotinus's worldview does not reflect social reality at all.

Plotinus regarded the One as the source of the cosmos, in which all distinctions vanish. Nothing can be expressed about the One; it is devoid of all qualities and inaccessible to rational comprehension. Thus, the One can only be known mystically, in a state of ecstasy. Neoplatonists imagined the emergence of all else as an emanation (flow, radiation) from the One into non-being. As a result, progressively less perfect forms of existence arise (as the flow from the One weakens): the Intellect, the Soul, and Matter. For Plotinus, matter is a negative entity, the “non-being,” darkness, and chaos. The doctrine of the One, along with the preaching of mystical comprehension of the primal principle, influenced the formation of Christian dogma, particularly in Byzantium. At the same time, the theory of emanation became the foundation for numerous medieval heresies, which opposed the idea of emanation to the creationism prevalent in Christianity and Islam. The most notable followers of Plotinus were Porphyry, Proclus, and Hypatia.

Porphyry (233-304) is famous for editing and publishing the works of Plotinus, thus popularizing his ideas. Additionally, he was one of the first intellectuals and critics of Christianity, expressing doubt regarding its dogmas based on pagan philosophical traditions. After the establishment of Christianity, many of Porphyry's works were destroyed, yet his critique of Christian ideas can be reconstructed through the writings of the “Church Fathers.”

Proclus (412-485), one of the last scholarchs of the Athenian Academy, is renowned for his work The Elements of Theology, in which he outlined Plotinus’s teachings in a systematic manner. A notable female scholar of neoplatonism was Hypatia (370-415), who worked in the Alexandrian Museum and authored several works on mathematics, astronomy, and physics.

With the death of the "last Roman"—Boethius (524 or 526 CE)—there concludes the last significant philosophical work of the ancient world. In anticipation of his execution, Boethius penned his principal work, "The Consolation of Philosophy," a text free from the growing influence of Christianity. It is noteworthy that Boethius personifies philosophy as a woman, unconnected to Christian images and sensibilities. Herein lies the contemplation of human dignity and the greatness of the spirit, reflections on the nature of divinity and humanity, the purpose of existence, and the true good for humankind; the notion that any evil is, in itself, a form of punishment, while virtue is a good; considerations of human freedom in relation to divine wisdom, and so forth. Thus, the work speaks of the solace that philosophy can offer to humanity, independent of any religion, serving as a true comfort for the heart and mind.

In 529, Emperor Justinian initiated a persecution of pagans. By decree, he closed the Platonic Academy (then neoplatonic) in Athens. This date is regarded as marking the conclusion of antiquity as a whole and philosophy in particular, signifying the conventional beginning of the Middle Ages.

The Connection Between Hellenism and Christianity

The result of Alexander the Great's conquests and the Roman and Parthian invasions was the dissolution of boundaries between Greeks and barbarians, the migration of large populations, and the mutual infiltration of Greco-Roman and Eastern cultures. All of this, along with the individualism and philosophical realism of the Hellenistic era, fostered a self-awareness in individuals as citizens of the world rather than mere city-states. Such a yearning for universality influenced Hellenistic religiosity, revealing its foundational characteristic—syncretism—not merely as a merging of the incompatible but as a search for a singular universal deity, a powerful, just, and merciful God who would protect and save humanity amidst circumstances beyond its control. These tendencies and expectations laid the groundwork for the spread of Christian ideas.

In a city renowned not only for its famous philosophers and schools but also for Pericles, Demosthenes, Sophocles, and Euripides, Paul—a Jew from Tarsus—preached the biblical message. Among Paul's listeners were Epicureans and Stoics. The apostle's address in Athens was directed specifically at them. At first, he praised the Athenians for their piety: "For as I passed by and beheld your devotions, I found an altar with this inscription: To the Unknown God." He declared that this "Unknown God" "made the world and all things therein; seeing that he is Lord of heaven and earth, dwelleth not in temples made with hands." In this worship of the Greeks towards the "Unknown God," there was an unconscious longing within polytheism for a singular truth and the quest for the one true God. Even pagan poets spoke of Him: "For we are also His offspring." These words, cited by the apostle from the verses of the poet Aratus of Cilicia, who lived in the 3rd century BCE, echo a similar sentiment found in the hymns of Cleanthes, a disciple of Zeno. By using the verse of a Greek poet, Paul established a connection between Greek beliefs and the biblical message. "For in Him we live, and move, and have our being, as certain also of your own poets have said, For we are also His offspring." Paul deemed it necessary to convey a complete understanding of this truth to the Greeks: "Whom therefore ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you. God that made the world and all things therein, seeing that he is Lord of heaven and earth, dwelleth not in temples made with hands." Paul did not directly condemn paganism but sought to help his listeners carefully weigh their beliefs and arrive at rational conclusions.

It was the Epicureans and Stoics who engaged in debate with Paul. The impression they took away from their conversation with the apostle was mixed: some, likely the Epicureans, regarded the truth Paul preached as mere babbling, while others, presumably the Stoics, were intrigued by this foreigner preaching about unfamiliar deities, as Paul spoke of Jesus Christ and the Resurrection, which they, according to St. John Chrysostom, understood as a peculiar divinity. The Stoics, at least, did not turn away from the preacher with disdain; they desired to hear him, although they found his discourse strange.

In his sermon, St. Paul articulated the following thoughts:

There is One God, the Creator of the Universe. He is entirely independent of the material world. All people originate from the will of this God, from one blood, and thus have One and the Same God.

This thought is exceedingly significant, as the distinction between nationalities was one of the primary foundations of ancient polytheism. The differences among peoples, shaped by circumstances of time and place, were determined by the highest will of God: all humanity is called to come to knowledge of God; their destinies are the education by which God leads them to this goal. This knowledge of God is not difficult, for God is not far from each of us—within human nature lies something that connects it to God.

The Apostle concludes his discourse with a call to repentance, motivated by the judgment of the Universe "by the Man" God has appointed, namely, Jesus Christ, whom He raised from the dead.

Before the Apostle even named the name of Jesus Christ, some of his listeners, upon hearing of the resurrection of the dead, began to mock him, while others said, "We will hear you again on this matter." It is likely that the mocking came from the Epicureans, whose philosophy vehemently rejected the idea of the resurrection. The others were more polite, yet had they sincerely wished to listen to the Apostle "another time," he would have remained in Athens rather than abruptly leave the city, interrupting his unfinished speech and hastily departing from the Areopagus.

Nevertheless, the apostle's address bore fruit: "some believed, among them was Dionysius the Areopagite," a member of the Areopagus, and Damaris, a woman from his circle. Dionysius, as tradition holds, became the most devoted disciple of the holy apostle Paul. Later, he served as bishop of Athens, preached the Gospel in Gaul, and met a martyr's death in Paris.

Ancient philosophy can be regarded as a monumental spiritual achievement of all humanity and the inception of European philosophical thought. It was here that ideas and theories emerged that would shape the style of modern philosophical thinking and humanity's eternal quest for wisdom. Ancient philosophy is closely intertwined with the development of philosophical thought in Ukraine. With the adoption of Christianity by Kievan Rus from Byzantium, the texts of ancient Greek philosophers became accessible for understanding (knowledge of ancient Greek was necessary for the translation of the Bible). Thus, ancient philosophy was interpreted by domestic thinkers, subsequently exerting a tremendous influence on Ukrainian spiritual culture.

Therefore, the central themes of ancient philosophy concern the sensory-material cosmos as an absolute, purposefully directed by the soul and reason, thus subject to fate.

Philosophy neither changes nor encroaches upon anything. It simply begins with wonder, continues through doubt, and culminates in skepticism or disappointment. This gives us reason to delineate four eras within ancient philosophy.

I. The First Era marks the time of the initial development of philosophy—from Thales to Socrates (7th-5th centuries BCE). The primary concern of pre-Socratic philosophy was the understanding of nature; towards the end of this era, the anthropocentric issues posed by the Sophists emerged on the philosophical stage.

II. The Second Era encompasses the development of Greek philosophy from Socrates to Aristotle (5th-4th centuries BCE). This era is known as Socratic philosophy, represented by Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.

III. The Third Era extends from the death of Aristotle (3rd century BCE to 1st century CE) and signifies a decline in Greek philosophy: various schools emerged focusing on practical life issues. This was a time when Greek philosophy spread beyond Greece, particularly into the Roman state. Therefore, it is referred to as Greco-Roman or Hellenistic philosophy. After the classics, no new achievements can arise (one cannot surpass the classics); they can only be disseminated and carried forth into the world: represented, popularized, classified, inventoried, and never surpassed. When philosophy, in the words of I. Kant, transitioned from Greeks to Romans, it did not enrich itself; the Romans remained mere pupils.

IV. The Fourth Era marks the end of ancient philosophy from the 1st to the 6th centuries CE. The religious question became predominant. Theosophy and mysticism led to syncretic philosophy.