Philosophy of The Middle Ages

The Religious Nature of the Medieval Worldview and Philosophy

The philosophy of the Middle Ages developed predominantly within the context of feudalism (5th to 15th century). Its formation was preceded by changes not only in the political and economic relations of the time but, more importantly, in the worldview orientation of society. The gradual emergence of monotheistic religiosity—faith in a single God—culminated in the triumph of Christianity, which became the dominant religious ideology in Europe. This circumstance fundamentally shaped the content and form of medieval philosophy.

It is noteworthy that the worldview and life principles of early Christian communities were initially formed in opposition to the pagan world. However, as Christianity gained increasing influence and spread, it began to require rational justification for its dogmas. To this end, attempts were made to employ the teachings of ancient philosophers, primarily Plotinus.

Thus, medieval thought and perception were defined by two distinct traditions: Christian revelation on one side and ancient philosophy, primarily in its idealistic variant, on the other.

The main representatives of medieval philosophy include Tertullian of Carthage, Augustine of Hippo (Saint Augustine), Albert the Great, Severinus Boethius, Thomas Aquinas, John Roscelin, Anselm of Canterbury, and Peter Abelard.

A characteristic feature of medieval philosophy is its pronounced religious nature. The ideas of Christian monotheism became foundational for medieval philosophy, particularly defining the essence of doctrines concerning being, knowledge, and humanity.

The doctrine of being is based on the idea of divine creation—the central idea of Christian monotheism. God is proclaimed as the source of all that exists, being eternal, unchanging, omnipotent, omnipresent, all-good, and all-knowing. God created the world ex nihilo, by an act of His will. The created world is not autonomous, as it is a result of divine creation; hence, it is dependent on the will of God, characterized by changeability and transience.

A distinctive trait of medieval doctrine regarding being is geocentrism—the conception that the Earth is the immobile center of the universe.

The doctrine of knowledge is also viewed through the lens of religious perception, grounded in the idea of divine revelation. It is impossible to fully know God. However, God partially reveals Himself to humanity through the sacred texts of the Bible, the interpretation of which becomes the primary pathway to knowledge.

The world, a product of divine creation, remains ultimately unknowable. The surrounding world cannot be comprehended through scientific means. Only religious faith and correct (in line with Christian tradition) interpretation of the sacred texts of the Bible can provide humanity with true knowledge of the world and, indeed, of itself.

Thus, the philosophical ideals of knowledge in the Middle Ages converge upon the interpretation of sacred scriptures and the understanding of the essence of divine revelation.

The doctrine of humanity is founded on the ideas of creationism (humanity as God's creation) and providentialism (the foresight of God). Within medieval philosophy, humanity is viewed in dual terms. On one hand, humanity is the pinnacle of divine creation, made in the "image and likeness" of God. According to Christian doctrine, humanity is the sovereign of the natural world, endowed by God with remarkable traits such as reason, soul, the capacity for moral choice (the ability to discern good from evil), and creativity (the capacity to create something new). These traits define the essence of humanity and its divinity, making humanity destined to reign over nature and govern the universe.

On the other hand, due to the fall of the first humans (Adam and Eve) and their expulsion from Paradise, humanity is regarded as weak, base, and wholly dependent on God's will.

This dual interpretation of humanity is a characteristic feature of medieval philosophy.

According to the idea of providentialism, the fate of humanity and its earthly existence is predetermined by God even before birth. However, God grants humanity the opportunity to continually make moral choices: to choose the path of holiness or sin, good or evil, justice or injustice, and so forth; God seems to perpetually test humanity. Thus, the principle of free will is proclaimed within the framework of God's predetermined (predestined) fate.

The idea of the resurrection of humanity—both soul and body—in the future, based on righteous conduct, was also posited.