Traditional Philosophy of India and China

The Tradition of Philosophy in Ancient India

The Vedas and the Worldview of Vedic Culture

Initially, the archaic beliefs and practices of the Aryans were centered around the chanting of hymns—praises to the gods that called upon higher powers for assistance. These chants accompanied sacrificial offerings, which were burned upon the altar. Additionally, they consumed a psychotropic beverage known as soma. Its exact composition and origins remain uncertain; it is likely derived from the juice of ephedra, containing substances akin to amphetamines. The psychoactive effects of soma induced a powerful surge of energy, euphoria, a diminished sense of fear, an eagerness for action, and unrestrained joy. It is no surprise that the Aryans regarded those who regularly consumed soma as immortal and powerful.

These hymns constitute the initial and fundamental content of the Vedas. The period of their composition is a subject of debate, which we shall bypass here. Roughly, this took place from the mid to the late second millennium BCE. There are four Vedas, whose content largely overlaps. Each Veda features several traditional recensions, differing partially in their textual composition. The Vedas were organized functionally: they comprise texts meant for memorization by priests, each performing their respective ritual roles in various ceremonial acts.

The Rigveda contains a collection of hymns-mantras that were recited in full voice by the chief priest (brahman), who led the sacrificial ceremony. The Yajurveda consists of mantras spoken quietly by the assistant priest (adhvaryu). The Samaveda contains selected hymns from the Rigveda, sung by the chanting priests (udgatri), characterized by their distinct melodies. In contrast to these three, the Atharvaveda stands apart, containing various magical incantations and charms for protection against evil spirits, misfortune, and illness, aimed at healing, prolonging life, and achieving one's goals. Its concluding sections feature mantras performed during weddings and funerals, as well as hymns extolling the universe, illuminating how the Aryans envisioned it. The texts of the Atharvaveda are written in the most archaic form of Vedic Sanskrit.

These hymns, directly pronounced during rituals, form the so-called samhitās (collections) of sacred texts. Each samhitā is accompanied by an appendix explaining the rules for applying these magical formulas and hymns, known as the brāhmanas. Together, the samhitās and brāhmanas constitute the ritual section of the Vedas (karma-kanda). In addition to this, Vedic literature encompasses texts elucidating the cosmos, humanity's place within it, the purpose of ritual actions, ethical principles of human relationships, appropriate lifestyles, and notions of reincarnation after death. These sections—the aranyakas and upanishads—became the philosophical foundation of Indian thought.

The texts of the Vedas were composed over many centuries, which naturally affected their coherence: their content is remarkably diverse. The Vedas are by no means a logically consistent and non-contradictory exposition of any single perspective; rather, they are collections of expressions accumulated over centuries to facilitate the organization of cultic practices. Initially, the head of the family—reflecting the pronounced patriarchal structure of Aryan life, wherein men played a primary role within the clan—performed the sacrifices and conducted all rituals independently. However, over time, specialists emerged among the Aryans—brahmins—likely coinciding with the establishment of sacrificial canons. The term "brahman" is associated with the belief in the efficacy of spoken words, which catalyze growth and development, implying that utterance is a necessary condition for realizing desires, thus fostering the conviction that one must know the correct words for every endeavor. Alongside this, increasing emphasis was placed on offerings. The deities—benevolent forces, literally "those who give"—demanded just exchange: to receive something, one must first give.

This foundation fostered the development of a sacrificial practice that evolved into a strictly regulated ritual executed by knowledgeable priests, requiring significant time and effort. The brahmins—executors of this ritual—firmly believed in its necessity, persuading others of its importance, for without it, the order of the world would collapse. It is noteworthy that the term "brahman" denoted both the intrinsic power of sacred utterance and those who possessed that knowledge, and later referred to universal consciousness as an absolute reality (to be elaborated upon later), as well as to the divine. The kshatriyas—warriors and rulers—began to differentiate themselves from the laboring class, the vaishyas, who engaged in physical labor. Thus, during the era of Brahmanism, a distinct opposition arose between spiritual and military authority, each appealing to different fears and expectations of the people.

In this atmosphere of political contradictions and religious demands, during the decline of classical Brahmanism (7th-6th centuries BCE), philosophy began to emerge, assimilating a substantial portion of earlier mythological concepts from the Vedas while reinterpreting them for new purposes. Archaic thought, besides the belief in the physical efficacy of words and images, was also characterized by a tendency to personify effective forces and circumstances. Thus, the ancients understood that it was not sufficient merely to perform an act, such as sowing wheat in prepared soil to yield a harvest; one also needed to utter the appropriate words, without which growth was not guaranteed. However, these words were not only spoken by humans but also by other beings more powerful in their knowledge of worldly management. Those forces necessary for human well-being, upon which it depended, became imagined as helpers to be called upon for aid.

Various notions developed regarding spirits, gods, and possible connections with them (religious beliefs). According to the Aryans, the entire world operates under the law (ṛta), which dictates the consequences of all actions (what will happen if...). In this law, physical and moral consequences were indistinguishable: what occurs simultaneously possesses both physical and moral status—it is either right or wrong. The maintenance of proper order was attributed to higher powers, each of which the Aryans glorified in their hymns. Undoubtedly, the preferences they granted to certain gods, praising them as the mightiest and most significant, resembled a father’s affection for each of his children as the "most beloved." The fact that logically, they could not all be "the greatest" did not concern the Aryan, who adhered to his naive and practically oriented views. When this inconsistency was observed, a simple answer emerged: these names represent different aspects of the same, singular, omnipotent god, appearing under various guises (similar to how one actor can play different roles in different films, yet remains himself in every episode).

From the texts of the Vedas, it can be inferred that the Aryans believed that upon death, a person transitions to another world ruled by Yama—the king of that realm; he is the first person to enter it. It was only later, in a more advanced period, that the doctrine of post-mortem reincarnation of souls was developed, governed by the law of karma. This law uniquely interprets the causes of everything that happens to a person in this life as a consequence of their past life and what they are atoning for in the present. The suffering inflicted upon other living beings reverberates in future incarnations in such a way that the one who caused suffering must endure it themselves. Based on these views, Indian philosophers sought a practical means to escape the continuous cycle of suffering, to free themselves from new rebirths, and to secure bliss and tranquility, otherwise known as liberation.

It is important to note that in the spiritual culture of India, philosophy remained the province of a relatively small circle of individuals connected to privileged social strata. Simultaneously, Vedic religion and magic increasingly transformed into numerous cults, where local traditions intertwined with the views of ancient Aryans and the teachings of prophets. During the emergence of philosophical schools, the establishment of Hinduism— the folk religious tradition of modern India—was also taking place. These two processes were not isolated; they influenced one another, leading the life of the philosophical community to be accompanied by various religious-mystical practices. This integration ultimately rendered philosophical reflections inseparable from diverse psychotechnics and rituals.

The formation of philosophy during the period from the 6th century BCE to the 2nd century CE coincided with the compilation and dissemination of ancient Indian epics. Monumental works—the Mahabharata and the Ramayana—laid the foundations for the consolidation of the Indian mentality within the written tradition. At the same time, fierce political struggles unfolded, and the first great states emerged, vying for hegemony. The familiar world of human existence was shattered, and within the crucible of social processes, mental culture was forged. In this atmosphere of uncertainty and new possibilities, societal contrasts, and personal disappointments, hopes and anxieties, the first shoots of a philosophical culture of critical thinking emerged, characterized by trust in one’s own intellect and an effort to grapple with contentious issues through the construction of thoroughly reasoned doctrines. However, these philosophical inquiries were intertwined with the development of other aspects of mental culture. Literary creativity wove together with mythopoetics, which, in turn, sparked sharp debates about the order of the universe and the reinterpretation of classical religious practices.

Early philosophical works were recorded in the form of brief aphorisms, serving as reminders of more elaborate teachings imparted by a teacher orally within a circle of disciples. These compilations of records, or sutras, were later accumulated, establishing a written tradition for specific schools. Over time, these early sutras became enriched with commentaries, leading to the necessity of systematizing various doctrines and clarifying positions in disputes. A teaching style emerged wherein the thinker sequentially described the essence of the views of different schools on a particular issue, pointed out the arguments by which they refuted one another, and subsequently provided his interpretation, anticipating possible objections to it.

The systematizers of Indian philosophy distinguish several such “school” traditions. They are commonly divided into two groups: those that reject the authority of the Vedas, considering them mere works of ordinary people and deeming it impossible to rely on them as a source of truth (the unorthodox schools, or nāstika), and those that acknowledge this authority (the orthodox schools, or āstika).

Among the unorthodox systems, the philosophy of Lokayata, or Charvaka, stands in opposition to all others, which share the recognition that the soul cannot be reduced to the body. Two of the unorthodox schools, Buddhism and Jainism, represent an early attempt to critically reevaluate Brahmanism. They proposed a non-religious alternative, a different path to liberation from suffering. However, in time, Buddhism extended far beyond India, losing its initial influence in its homeland, and became one of the world’s religions, spreading in various forms across South Asia and the Far East (Thailand, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, the countries of Indochina, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, Mongolia, Tuva, Buryatia, China, Korea, Japan). This period also saw the emergence of Samkhya, which articulated a unique dualistic understanding of the world as the interaction of two disparate principles: the corporeal (prakriti) and the spiritual (purusha). Samkhya dismissed the notion of divinity as a necessary condition for understanding the order of the world; likewise, liberation could be achieved through one’s own efforts. Nevertheless, the Vedas were regarded as a reliable source of knowledge. A closely related teaching was the Yoga of Patanjali, which served as a practical complement to Samkhya, developing concepts of self-discipline techniques and the liberation from bodily dependencies to free the pure “I” of a person, which merges in concentration (samadhi) with the divine spirit. Yoga is widely known in the West as a system of physical exercises built upon certain postures, often quite intricate. Yet this represents only a fragment of the Indian philosophy of yoga; moreover, the essence of these exercises is far from mere fitness.

The teachings closest to the European understanding of philosophy were developed by representatives of two schools, Nyaya and Vaisheshika, which later merged into one. The Nyayikas primarily focused on constructing persuasive and reliable arguments, while the Vaisheshikas concentrated on cosmology and the philosophy of nature (the understanding of the laws governing the world in which we live).

Lastly, the philosophical schools of Purva Mimamsa (considered heirs of Brahmanism) and Vedanta directly continued the worldview commentaries initiated in the Upanishads. The latter, in its various branches, became the most characteristic and elaborated philosophical system, with which Indian philosophy, especially in its modern form, is now largely associated.

Equally significant were the Buddhist investigations, including those beyond India, which branched into numerous currents and currently stand as one of the powerful philosophical traditions, comparable in scope to Western philosophy as a whole.

The remaining schools now hold primarily historical significance: Samkhya ceased its independent development, partially dissolving into yoga. Vaisheshika effectively merged with Nyaya, and, like Jainism, remains a relatively minor teaching; Lokayata has long ceased to exist as a school, remaining rather a virtual system used to illustrate potential and common (according to critics) superstitions to demonstrate their fallacy.

Overall, during its formative stage, Indian philosophy undergoes three phases of development (according to S. Radhakrishnan): — systems that arose in opposition to the authority of the Vedas: Charvaka, Buddhists, and Jainists (6th century BCE); — a reaction in the form of theistic philosophical constructs (the Bhagavad Gita, later Upanishads) (5th century BCE); — the development of six orthodox philosophical systems, each constructing its own framework of rational argumentation (beginning from the 3rd century BCE, culminating in the 2nd century CE).

During this time, the geniuses of Indian philosophical thought emerged: Brihaspati (the founder of Lokayata), Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) and Vardhamana (Mahavira)—the founders of Buddhism and Jainism, respectively; Gotama (also known as Gautama and Akshapada)—the founder of Nyaya; Uluka (Kanada)—the founder of Vaisheshika; Patanjali—the founder of Yoga; Kapila—the founder of Samkhya; Jaimini, along with his later prominent followers Kumarila Bhatta and Prabhakara—the founders of the adherents of Purva Mimamsa; and a cohort of notable Vedantists—Badarayana, and later Shankara, Ramanuja, and Madhava. Their biographies have, at present, taken on a nearly legendary quality, yet significant literary legacies are associated with their names.