Traditional Philosophy of India and China

The Tradition of Philosophy in Ancient India

General Overview of the Spiritual Culture of Ancient India and the Role of Philosophy Within It

The Indus Valley stands as one of the earliest centers of civilization. By the 27th-26th centuries BCE, a developed agricultural culture had emerged, marked by signs of advanced labor division and the beginnings of proto-cities, as evidenced by excavations at Kot Diji. Over time, this foundation gave rise to a sophisticated civilization, conventionally dated to around 2500 BCE, evidenced by the ruins of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, although dating may vary across sources. However, this civilization declined by the 18th century BCE, with the precise reasons for its collapse remaining unclear. Several centuries later, around the 14th-13th centuries BCE, or perhaps earlier, the so-called Aryans began to penetrate the Indian subcontinent from the Ganges' upper reaches. They are associated with the earliest written records of spiritual culture—the Vedas (meaning knowledge or wisdom; the roots of the words "veda," "witch," and "information" are all the same). The language of the Vedas, Vedic Sanskrit, belongs to the Indo-European language family, which includes Slavic languages. In ancient Iran (Persia), similar texts are known as the Avesta. Evidently, the Vedic writings were based on an older tradition of oral transmission, tracing back at least to the time when a single Indo-Aryan linguistic community existed, characterized by its distinctive beliefs, customs, social institutions, and way of life.

After their arrival in India, the bearers of Vedic culture interacted with local tribes, some of which were at significantly lower levels of development, while others were more advanced and connected to the ancient civilization of the Indus Valley. This protracted process of cultural synthesis significantly shaped the spiritual backdrop of Indian philosophy. The characteristic social organization of the Aryan community further influenced this context.

Initially, the Aryans exemplified a typical patriarchal society, with large families led by a father—the head of the household. Families formed communities, from which kings and war leaders were elected. Participation in wars, coupled with the opportunity to accumulate cattle, elevated the status of professional warriors and fostered further economic stratification. Concurrently, the function of sacrifices to the gods became specialized and became the province of the Brahmins—professional priests who memorized vast quantities of chants and hymns that accompanied sacrifices and significant social events, such as weddings or funerals.

As a result of this stratification within the Aryan community, three social classes, or varnas, emerged: the Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (professional warriors and the military elite), and Vaishyas (free citizens engaged in production: artisans, farmers, and herders). In India, the use of slave labor spread, largely due to subjugated local tribes and prisoners of war, primarily serving the military elite. Additionally, a characteristic caste system developed, wherein individuals belonged to a specific "caste" from birth, designated to perform preordained functions. Changing one's social role was impossible. This caste system sharply limited social mobility but simultaneously ensured a unique pluralism of social norms, wherein the lifestyles of some could markedly differ from those of others, yet they coexisted without mixing or adopting each other's customs. The caste system became a social adhesive, uniting diverse elements into a cohesive society with a clear social hierarchy and the hereditary transmission of unchangeable social status. In addition to the three privileged varnas, often referred to as the "twice-born" (from a unique initiation rite symbolizing a rebirth as a recognized community member), a fourth, lowest caste, the Shudras, emerged—those who performed menial and labor-intensive tasks and were barred from participating in sacred rites. Furthermore, there exist individuals in India who belong to none of the castes and are considered "untouchables." They perform unclean work that would defile any member of a caste, such as slaughtering animals, tanning hides, washing dirty laundry, and disposing of waste.

Belonging to one of the varnas imposes specific restrictions on food consumption, choices of marriage partners, participation in ritual practices, and generally dictates the appropriate modes of interaction among individuals. The caste system has deeply influenced self-perception among people and significantly shaped the characteristics of the Indian philosophical tradition and the nature of its thematic focus. The reader may have already surmised that the majority of Indian philosophers hail from the Brahmin caste, with Kshatriyas being less common. Their interests rarely revolved around social change and technology but were closely tied to the specific worldview that emerged within Vedic culture.