Ancient Philosophy

The Beginning of Moral Philosophy (Socrates)

The most significant era of Greek philosophy begins with Socrates (469-399 BCE), who shifted the focus of philosophy toward practical concerns and initiated the study of moral philosophy. He was the first to contemplate the human way of life and the first philosopher to be executed by the verdict of his fellow citizens.

Recognizing his indifference to physical philosophy, Socrates turned his attention to the morals of individuals, wandering through marketplaces and workshops, curious about the lives and beliefs of citizens. He often provoked debates, enduring the ire of those who could no longer find other arguments.

Socrates engaged in discussions with enthusiasm, not to persuade others, but to uncover the truth. His attitudes toward life are reflected in his notable remarks. In the market, he once exclaimed, "How many things here are completely unnecessary for me!" He believed, "The fewer needs a person has, the closer they are to the divine." Socrates asserted, "To have no needs at all is to be divine, while to require only a little is to be akin to a deity. Since divine nature represents the highest perfection, striving toward it means approaching that perfection."

When a young man asked him whether he should marry, Socrates replied, "Do as you think best; you will regret it either way." He was brought to trial for impiety and corrupting the youth. "Socrates is guilty of not honoring the gods recognized by the city and introducing new deities, as well as corrupting the youth, and his punishment is death," stated the verdict. Days later, in prison, he drank the cup of hemlock.

Socrates’ philosophy centers on the human person, emphasizing practical will directed toward a goal. This ultimate goal is the good, which must be an intrinsic part of human consciousness. The good is that which exists for its own sake; it is universal, unconditional, and, as a general truth for all, it loses its subjectivity while being comprehensible as an objective reality.

The means to achieve knowledge of the idea of the good was through positive dialectic. Socrates sought to clarify the terminology of the Greek language, insisting that each word and thought be given a clear and precise definition. He effectively "prosaized" the language of Greek philosophy, in contrast to the pre-Socratics, who sought concepts veiled in words and images. When they spoke of "water" or "fire" as the primal substances of the world, or described the law of existence as "harmony," "flux," or "number," they conjured vivid images—those of real fire or water, musical harmony, or the turbulent waves of a mountain stream—symbolizing the essence of the world, which they aimed to convey through notions of its constant change or harmonious order and beauty.

Thus, the idea of the good, as an ideal principle, must fill the human person. While Socrates asserted the existence of this ideal principle, it was his student Plato who later specified and defined its true nature.