Post-Classical Philosophy

Pragmatism

This movement, reflected in its very name, emphasizes action and what is useful and effective, developing primarily within the confines of American philosophy. In the realm of epistemology, pragmatists formulated a concept of truth distinct from the classical (correspondent) notion that long dominated European philosophy. According to the classical concept, truth is the correspondence of an explanation to the actual state of affairs. Amid the diversity of phenomena, objects, and processes, adherents of the classical view sought to uncover the essence underlying these phenomena. However, despite notable successes in the advancement of knowledge, the question of the reliability of acquired knowledge remained open. If knowledge once deemed reliable turns out to be false over time, what guarantee is there that theories currently considered valid will not meet the same fate in the future?

Pragmatists approached knowledge differently: the primary goal of cognition should not be the pursuit of understanding essence or the precise reflection of reality, but rather the aspiration to adapt successfully to reality and act effectively within it. The principal criterion for truth thus becomes utility—knowledge is evaluated based on the consequences it produces. The best hypothesis is the one according to which an individual can achieve the desired outcome most efficiently. Pragmatism closely associates knowledge with action. In this perspective, knowledge is not an end in itself but a means to achieve a particular goal. Pragmatists criticized the excessive abstraction characteristic of philosophy in the preceding period, particularly evident within German idealism. Metaphysical searches for essence, from the pragmatist viewpoint, appear as an unproductive endeavor; instead, knowledge that can yield a useful result is deemed valuable. Pragmatism emphasizes the role of activity in the understanding of the world.

The founder of pragmatism was the American philosopher Charles Peirce (1839-1914). In his analysis of knowledge, he underscored the role of subjective certainty, or belief. He viewed belief not in a religious context (as mystical revelation or sacred teaching accepted without evidence) but as a property of convictions, as a result of overcoming doubt. Belief is not arbitrary; it is grounded in substantial reasons, representing certainty based on the best explanation. When confronted with a problem lacking a clear solution, an individual experiences doubt, which propels their thinking towards action.

Through investigation, where rational procedures play a crucial role, individuals expand their knowledge, allowing them to overcome doubt. Thus, the cognitive process is driven not so much by a desire to reflect reality but by the effort to resolve a particular problem. This entails a degree of subjectivism, as, under this approach, one ties truth to their own understanding of utility.

However, this subjectivism is not absolute—certain approaches enable more effective attainment of goals, while others prove less effective; thus, in the process of reaching a goal, one must contend with reality. Furthermore, Peirce emphasized that although one hypothesis may be more effective than another, this does not imply that the former will not be discarded in time, should a more effective one emerge. An explanation that satisfies us today may become inadequate in the future. Therefore, knowledge is not immune to error, a principle known as fallibilism.

Within the framework of pragmatism, Peirce developed the concept of abduction. Alongside the logical procedures of deduction and induction (which held significant prominence in the methodological concepts of early modern thinkers), Peirce introduced a third—abduction, or the search for the best explanation. According to Peirce, abduction underlies the formation of hypotheses. Unlike deduction, which yields entirely reliable conclusions, abduction allows for the formulation of possible explanations for the phenomena under investigation. While abduction may appear logically dubious (as the truth of the conclusion is not guaranteed), it plays a vital role in cognition, as this method of reasoning is widely utilized in everyday life and scientific inquiry when seeking the most probable explanation for an occurrence or event.

Peirce is also renowned as a researcher of semiotics—the theory of signs and sign systems. Later, semiotics evolved into a significant field of study, finding applications in various sciences (such as logic, linguistics, and literary studies) as well as in applied research (for instance, in advertising).

Another American thinker associated with pragmatism is William James (1842-1910). He devoted considerable attention to psychology and developed one of the earliest theories of personality. In the spirit of pragmatism, he emphasized the role of habits in shaping personality. Like Peirce, James viewed cognition not merely as a rational procedure but also highlighted the roles of instincts and emotions.

His approach to religion is particularly interesting. While earlier thinkers, especially during the Enlightenment, often contrasted religion with rationality—seeing it as a result of ignorance or error—James analyzed religion from a different perspective. He posited that religion should be evaluated not based on how objectively it describes the world, but rather on the consequences it has for believers. This means analyzing not the truth or falsity of theological doctrines, but the benefits or harms a particular belief may bring. If a doctrine provides hope and support to the believer, positively influencing their life, it is reasonable for that believer to accept such a doctrine as true. This perspective aligns with the pragmatist principle that truth depends on practical outcomes. However, here the controversy of pragmatism becomes particularly evident: according to this approach, a socially beneficial fabrication would also be deemed true.

Another notable pragmatist is the American philosopher John Dewey (1859-1952). His views on truth are best characterized as instrumentalism—theories and ideas serve not so much as reflections of external reality, but as tools for achieving specific goals. Theories can be assessed based on their consequences: for instance, if a particular theory allows for successful predictions and effective interactions with the subjects under study, it can be accepted. The primary task of a theory is not to reflect the world but to indicate useful pathways for human adaptation to it. Dewey emphasized the importance of experience in both scientific inquiry and other domains. He understood experience quite broadly, encompassing sensory data, social experience, artistic expression, and even extrasensory (spiritual) experiences.

Dewey's educational concept, founded on the principles of pragmatism, deserves attention. He believed the existing education system was overly theoretical, detached from life, and aimed more at mechanical memorization of information than at developing skills useful for successful living. Instead, he elevated the role of activity and practice, asserting that solving practical problems prepares young people more effectively for real life. Dewey's concept significantly influenced the development of pedagogy in the United States.

In the realm of social philosophy and ethics, pragmatist ideas align closely with utilitarianism. The most prominent representative of utilitarianism was the British thinker Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832). The foundation of utilitarianism also lies in the idea of utility, but it primarily pertains to morality and the principles governing social organization. According to Bentham, individuals seek pleasure and avoid suffering; thus, the fundamental moral principle in evaluating the actions of individuals or social institutions should be the maximization of pleasure for the greatest number of people.

After a period of flourishing in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, pragmatism lost popularity by the mid-20th century, yielding ground to positivism and analytical philosophy, which gained prominence among American philosophers. Nevertheless, in the methodological concepts of that period, pragmatism was not entirely forgotten; for example, the influence of pragmatist ideas can be traced in the operationalism of American physicist and philosopher Percy Bridgman (1882-1961), in whose conception truth was viewed as the result of operations represented in measurement or experimentation.

However, since the early 1970s, there has been a resurgence of interest in pragmatism, giving rise to its modern variant—neo-pragmatism. The most notable representative of neo-pragmatism is the American philosopher Richard Rorty (1931-2007), and the ideas of pragmatism can be observed in the concepts of contemporary American philosophers such as Hilary Putnam (1926-2016) and Robert Brandom (born 1950). The pragmatic conception of truth has become one of the most popular in contemporary epistemology. In the philosophy of language, research in pragmatics is increasingly gaining traction (pragmatics, alongside syntax and semantics, is one of the key branches of semiotics). Overall, in modern philosophy, the notion of pragmatism is understood somewhat more broadly than in the classical pragmatism of Peirce, James, and Dewey, but the roots of contemporary pragmatism lie in their ideas.