Post-Classical Philosophy

Freudianism

This movement primarily developed as a current of psychology; however, a number of ideas formulated within the realm of psychoanalysis hold significant importance for philosophy. Notably, perhaps the most intriguing philosophical concept is the psychoanalytic notion of the unconscious. Previous epochs of philosophy were largely characterized by a rationalistic approach, wherein humans were regarded primarily as thinking beings, whose actions ought to be determined by consciousness. Enlightenment thinkers particularly emphasized the role of reason. While there were concepts that highlighted the emotional or volitional aspects of humanity (such as Romanticism), European philosophy generally accentuated the importance of rationality and the ideal of the rational individual who organizes their life according to consciously accepted and thoughtfully considered principles.

In contrast, the psychoanalytic framework underscores the role of the unconscious. The unconscious is not a flaw or a result of insufficient self-reflection; rather, it is an essential component of the psyche present in every individual, even the most rational among us. The unconscious occupies a significant position in the structure of human psyche, exerting a powerful influence on consciousness and behavior. This perspective refutes the established philosophical view of humanity as primarily a rational creature.

The founder of psychoanalysis was the Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). He identified three levels within the psyche: the "id" (the unconscious, embodying the pleasure principle), the "ego" (the consciousness, representing the reality principle), and the "superego" (the superconscious, expressing societal norms and demands). The "id" reflects the most immediate, instinctual desires of a person (for example, sleep, food, copulation). This realm is characterized by chaotic, disordered, undisciplined needs that demand immediate gratification. During the early stages of life, particularly in infancy, the psyche is predominantly governed by the "id." Infants cannot regulate their needs or defer their gratification. However, society, through the process of socialization, imposes a series of constraints on each individual, compelling them to master their needs, postpone their fulfillment, or realize them in forms acceptable to society. Such societal demands are internalized through upbringing, becoming part of the psyche as the "superego" (conscience and ego-ideal). Consciousness serves as a mediator between the realm of subconscious desires and the sphere of social norms, seeking ways to satisfy desires that align with societal requirements. Nevertheless, desires are often suppressed as inconsistent with social norms (for example, there are numerous taboos concerning sexuality). Consequently, these desires may be repressed from consciousness, as they do not correspond with the desired self-image of the individual. However, within the subconscious, these unfulfilled desires continue to exist, generating significant psychic tension, the excessive level of which may lead to neurosis. Repressed desires manifest in dreams, associations, and slips of the tongue, and one of the primary objectives of psychoanalysis was to uncover these desires that remain unacknowledged by the individual yet serve as a source of their psychological disorder.

Thus, consciousness undergoes dual pressure—from the "id" and from the "superego"—attempting to reconcile unconscious desires with social norms, and this reconciliation does not always succeed.

One of the key characteristics of the unconscious, according to Freud's theory, is its close connection to sexuality. This is reflected in the concept of libido—psychic sexual energy. Given that there are numerous social taboos surrounding sexuality (especially potent during the Victorian era, norms of which persisted during Freud's time), the energy of libido cannot be expressed directly. It is either repressed into the subconscious or manifested in socially approved activities, such as creativity. Freud referred to this phenomenon as sublimation. Subsequently, the idea that many manifestations of human activity are rooted in sexual energy has often taken on vulgarized forms in popular culture, leading to oversimplifications of Freud's teachings. Nevertheless, Freud indeed exaggerated the realm of sexuality, and in the subsequent development of psychoanalysis, his followers sought to temper the excessive emphasis on the role of libido. Most of them, while expanding on Freud's ideas, placed greater importance on social factors.

Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961) utilized the Freudian concept of the unconscious but broadened its understanding by applying it to collective, universal human experience. The unconscious contains not only repressed individual desires but also certain images that have formed in culture over deep antiquity. He termed these images of the collective unconscious archetypes. Archetypes are profound elements common to various cultures; Jung noted the similarities in mythological narratives found across different parts of the world. Moreover, symbols present in mythological tales also appear in the dreams of contemporary individuals and the fantasies of the mentally ill. This, according to Jung, serves as evidence of the collective unconscious underpinning the psychic life of individuals.

One of the most renowned theories developed within psychoanalysis belongs to Erich Fromm (1900-1980). He sought to merge psychoanalysis with Marxism, giving considerable attention to the analysis of social problems. Specifically, he devised a typology of social orientations of character. Additionally, Fromm expanded on Freud's teachings regarding two fundamental instincts of humanity—eros (the life instinct) and thanatos (the death instinct). Fromm proposed that individuals may be guided by a biophilic orientation (a life-affirming, creative stance) or a necrophilic orientation (a destructive stance). Necrophilia is understood not in a clinical sense but in a broader context, as exemplified by the pursuit of one's goals through destructive aggression, an interest in news about murders or disasters, and even a tendency towards bureaucratic control that seeks to reduce activity to a template, a lifeless schema.

A significant focus of Fromm's work is the issue of human self-realization and freedom. He distinguishes between two types of freedom—negative ("freedom from") and positive ("freedom to"). Although freedom is typically regarded as an important value, Fromm illustrated that many people, especially those with authoritarian character traits, perceive it as a burden and are willing to relinquish it, entrusting themselves to an authoritarian leader or another authoritative figure.

Overall, the psychoanalytic idea of the unconscious as a vital component of the psyche has proven immensely fruitful not only within psychology but also for the philosophical understanding of humanity. It has emerged that individuals are not as rational as many philosophical doctrines have suggested. Indeed, many tenets of psychoanalysis have been distorted, particularly in popular culture. A certain limitation of psychoanalysis is that even the concepts of its classics pose considerable challenges for scientific verification.