Philosophy of Being and Knowledge

Philosophy of Consciousness

Monism

Contrary to dualism, the concept of monism asserts that there is only one reality. The term originates from the Greek "μόνος" (monos, one) and reflects the belief among monistic philosophers that only a single substance exists. While dualists claim that consciousness and the body are two distinct substances, monists reject this bifurcation, positing instead that a single substance manifests in two forms. All monists agree on the existence of a single substance but diverge on its nature. Dualists discuss both body and consciousness, whereas monists focus on a single entity, raising the question of whether this entity is body or spirit. If only the body exists, consciousness is merely a byproduct; if only spirit exists, then the body is its byproduct.

Monistic ideas have appeared throughout the history of philosophy. The earliest concept of monism is found in Hinduism, where it is believed that only one substance, Brahman, or pure spirit, exists. Everything else is merely an expression of Brahman. Humans, animals, planets, minerals, spirits, and demons are not independent substances but avatars of Brahman. Thus, Hindus are convinced of the existence of pure consciousness, which resolves the problem of the relationship between matter and spirit: if only spirit exists, it is the cause of all its manifestations, both material and mental.

In ancient philosophy, monism is distinctly traceable in Neoplatonism. Plotinus, the founder of this school, argued that only one substance exists, the essence of which cannot be described or expressed. Plotinus called this substance the One and equated it with God. The One is indescribable and cannot be circumscribed by any concept but seeks to know itself. To understand itself, the One expresses itself outwardly. Thus, all that exists is nothing other than external expressions of the One.

One form of monism asserts that only one reality exists—spiritual, with consciousness as its primary characteristic, while matter is an epiphenomenon (a secondary effect) of spirit. Besides Hinduism and Neoplatonism, there are numerous other monistic theories where followers recognize only the existence of spirit, with physical phenomena understood as epiphenomena of spiritual processes. Neither Hindus nor Neoplatonists focused on human consciousness per se but were concerned with grand metaphysical doctrines. However, these theories lead to implications important for the philosophy of consciousness. If there is only one spiritual substance, then both the person (including body and consciousness) are expressions of it.

Apart from this form of monism, where only spirit is considered to exist and physical manifestations are seen as mere epiphenomena of spirit, there is another form of monism asserting that only matter exists, and spiritual processes are epiphenomena of material processes. Any form of materialism in the philosophy of consciousness belongs to this type of monism, as all materialists believe that only matter exists and consciousness is a manifestation of the specific organization of matter. Given that adherents of this view reduce consciousness to physical processes in humans, this position is known as physicalist monism. Within the philosophy of consciousness, there are several variants of physicalist monism:

• Emergent Materialism is the position held by those who assert that while only matter exists, it can, under certain conditions, achieve an organization that possesses not only its usual material properties but also conscious ones. This understanding of consciousness resolves the primary problem of dualism, namely, how consciousness causes bodily acts and the body causes mental actions, as asserting the existence of only matter entails causal relations only among material entities. Today, this theory is supported by the Australian philosopher David John Chalmers (b. 1966).
• Epiphenomenalism is the belief that only physical reality exists and manifests through physical phenomena, but sometimes these phenomena have side effects—mental manifestations. Thus, mental manifestations are not primary phenomena of physical reality but epiphenomena. Epiphenomena cannot influence the reality from which they are derived. This doctrine was first formulated by the English biologist Thomas Henry Huxley (1825-1895).
• Behaviorism is one of the most influential psychological approaches that emerged in the early 20th century, founded by John Broadus Watson (1878-1958). Behaviorists aimed to align psychology with the natural sciences, considering natural sciences as a model for any science due to its reliance on empirical data (experiment and observation). To make psychology resemble natural sciences, it needed to adopt empirical methods. Since no external observer can experience the inner feelings of another person, behaviorists excluded these experiences from biological research, focusing only on observable behavior. Hence, behaviorism was named after the English word "behavior." Behaviorists reduced not only the method of psychology but also its subject: behavior is seen as an expression of physical processes in humans.
• Identity Theory is a concept in the philosophy of consciousness formulated by the Australian philosopher John Smart (1920-2012) and the British philosopher J.J.C. Smart (1924-2000). Like all physicalist monists, they believed that a person is merely a physical body, and what appears as conscious activity is actually the actions of separate elements of the nervous system. For example, if someone wants chocolate, it means the parts of the brain responsible for that desire are active; if someone wants to listen to music, it means the nerves in the brain responsible for that desire are active. Identity theory has played a significant role in the philosophy of consciousness but has also faced criticism. American philosopher Hilary Putnam (1926-2016) criticized identity theory based on the argument of multiple realizability, which states that the same need can be satisfied in various ways. For instance, the need for sweets can be met by chocolate, honey, or a sweet dessert. If identity theory were true, the organism would require not just sensory experiences but a specific chemical element.
• Eliminative Materialism is an extreme form of physicalism developed by Canadians Paul Montgomery Churchland (b. 1942) and Patricia Smith Churchland (b. 1943). This theory is notable not so much for its physicalism but for its critique of opposing positions. Eliminativists argue that only the physiological essence of a person exists and no other substance that could be the bearer of consciousness. The notion of a separate consciousness from the body is seen as a product of "folk psychology," an attempt to substantiate what is difficult to explain. In the past, "folk psychology" produced the theory of phlogiston, which held that fire was not a chemical reaction but a separate substance released under certain conditions, causing flames. Just as humanity once struggled to abandon the theory of phlogiston, it today resists abandoning the concept of consciousness.
• Functionalism emerged as an antithesis to identity theory. It was developed by those who were physicalist monists but disagreed with the proponents of identity theory. The founders of functionalism include Americans Hilary Whitehall Putnam (1926-2016) and Jerry Alan Fodor (1935-2017). Various versions of functionalism were presented by Australian David Malet Armstrong (1926-2014), Americans David Kellogg Lewis (1941-2001), Wilfrid Sellars (1912-1989), Gilbert Harman (b. 1938), and Canadian Zenon Walter Pylyshin (b. 1937). Most of these were not only philosophers but also neuropsychologists. While proponents of identity theory believed that each specific act of consciousness results from the activity of another element of the nervous system, functionalists claimed that consciousness is the activity of the nervous system as a whole. Analysis of consciousness should focus not on the connections between acts of consciousness and specific elements of the nervous system but on impulses and outcomes. For instance, if someone wants to know the time, it is unreasonable to connect this need to a specific electron in the brain. It is the activity of the nervous system as a whole. Similarly, this need can be met in various ways (the multiple realizability argument of Hilary Putnam). For example, to find out the time, one can use either a mechanical or an electronic clock. Both clocks will satisfy this need equally well. This means that the impulses of the nervous system can be satisfied by various means; the crucial aspect is that the result of all these means is the same and meets the needs of the nervous system.
• Anomalous Monism is closely related to functionalism. Its founder was American Donald Herbert Davidson (1917-2003). Davidson argued that only physical reality exists, and a person is merely a materially highly organized body. One manifestation of the physical body is consciousness. Its uniqueness lies in its use of numerous possibilities to interpret physical actions. For example, the need to know the time can be interpreted as a prompt to look at a wristwatch or a wall clock. The choice of which option will be selected is neither predictable nor rationally explainable. There are no patterns to explain the choice of a particular interpretation from the set of possibilities. By emphasizing the absence of regularities in the choice of interpretation options, this form of monism received the name anomalous monism.

The intermediate position between the two types of monism—spiritual monism, which asserts that only spirit exists and physical manifestations are merely epiphenomena of spirit, and physicalist monism, which reduces the person to a material body and considers consciousness an epiphenomenon of physiology—is known as property dualism. Adherents of this approach to the problem of consciousness argue that only one reality exists, which is expressed in two ways: through extension and through consciousness. Property dualism includes panpsychism, the doctrine that everything has both physical and mental properties. This doctrine was expressed by representatives of the Milesian school in Ancient Greece, asserting that all that exists is alive and therefore expressed through both physical and mental phenomena. Accordingly, there is no single element in nature, except for God, that does not have both properties. Thus, the material element of nature possesses a mental property. This idea was revived in the 20th century by British philosopher Galen Strawson (b. 1953). Today, this approach is considered quite promising.