History of Philosophy

Ancient Philosophy

Socrates

The classical era of ancient philosophy began with the figure of Socrates (469-399 BCE). Born and living his entire life in Athens, Socrates was the son of a sculptor and a midwife, whose professions influenced his views. Socrates left no written works and did not teach in the conventional sense. Instead, he spent much of his time in the bustling areas of the city, engaging in dialogues with people, aiming to guide them to discover truths for themselves rather than imparting them directly. His critics accused him of corrupting the youth with new values that did not align with Athenian tradition, leading to his condemnation to death by poisoning, which Socrates accepted.

Socrates' primary concern was the origin of knowledge. He believed that knowledge is not acquired through teaching but is innate and hidden within each person from birth. The role of the teacher is not to impart knowledge but to assist in bringing forth the latent knowledge already present in the individual's mind. Hence, Socrates engaged in dialogues rather than traditional teaching, with the goal of helping his interlocutors realize the knowledge within them. Socrates likened his method to that of a midwife, a comparison inspired by his parents' professions. Just as a midwife assists in childbirth and a sculptor reveals a statue from stone, Socrates aimed to uncover the inherent knowledge within each person. He believed that knowledge should be introspective, reflecting the idea inscribed on the temple of Apollo at Delphi, "Know thyself," attributed to Thales. This maxim became the guiding principle of Socrates' philosophy. He claimed that his teacher was his inner spirit (daimonion), with whom he conversed.

Socrates used circles to illustrate the scope of a person's active knowledge. He observed that when a person knows little, the boundary between their knowledge and ignorance appears narrow, leading them to believe they are close to knowing everything; thus, they feel almost omniscient. However, as one’s knowledge expands, the gap between knowledge and ignorance grows larger. For example, if someone is unaware of mathematics, they do not even realize their ignorance. Once they become aware of mathematics, they immediately recognize their lack of knowledge in the field. Thus, expanding knowledge reveals a greater extent of one's ignorance. This insight relates to Socrates' famous assertion: "I know that I know nothing, but others do not even know that."

Another major concern for Socrates was ethics. Similar to his views on knowledge, Socrates argued that every person has an inherent understanding of goodness and always acts in what they believe to be good. Even when someone commits a crime, they perceive it as good. This happens because not everyone can correctly distinguish between good and evil; proper discernment requires bringing implicit knowledge to the forefront. To cultivate a virtuous person, it is not necessary to instill foreign traits but to help them actualize their understanding of good and evil, enabling them to correctly assess moral actions. Socrates defined moral excellence as the ability to correctly identify and pursue the good.

As with every genius, Socrates posed more questions than he answered. After his death, his students continued his explorations, establishing what are known as Socratic schools:

• The Megarian School was founded by Socrates' student Euclid of Megara, who had previously studied at the Eleatic school. Euclid attempted to reconcile two concepts inherited from his teachers: Parmenides' notion of eternal and unchanging being and Socrates' idea of goodness. While Socrates viewed goodness as a moral category, Euclid transformed it into an ontological category, meaning that goodness was not merely a characteristic of actions but a real, existing essence, in contrast to the ephemeral world. Euclid also expanded on Socrates' theory of knowledge, asserting that true knowledge consists of understanding eternal and unchanging ideas, independent of their manifestations in the world. For instance, the Pythagorean theorem remains true in all circumstances, even if no physical right-angled triangles exist. After Euclid, the Megarian school experienced transformations similar to those of the Eleatic school. Just as Zeno described paradoxes in the Eleatic school, Euclid’s successor, Eubulides, created paradoxes in the Megarian school. Notably, the "Liar Paradox" posits that if someone says "I am lying," whether they are telling the truth or lying remains unclear, as if they are lying, the statement is false, and if they are telling the truth, the statement is true. The "Heap Paradox" questions how many grains are needed to form a heap, given that adding a single grain does not make a heap.
• The Cyrenaic School was founded by Socrates' student Aristippus of Cyrene. Aristippus sought to answer the question of what constitutes goodness. Unlike Euclid of Megara, who searched for the essence of goodness in ontology, Aristippus provided a simpler explanation: goodness is pleasure. Anything that brings pleasure is good. There is no criterion for determining goodness other than pleasure. Since pleasure (ήδονή, hedonē) is central to this ethical view, it is called hedonistic. To maximize pleasure, one must avoid suffering. Aristippus recognized that suffering precludes pleasure, so he emphasized avoiding suffering as a prerequisite for pleasure. He also acknowledged that pleasure could lead to addiction and consequent suffering. To avoid this, Aristippus recommended pursuing various pleasures to offset one another. His followers refined his teachings, with Theodorus asserting that spiritual pleasures are superior to physical ones and that physical pleasures might be sacrificed for the sake of spiritual ones. Spiritual pleasures were seen as virtues achievable only by the wise, while the behavior of the majority required regulation through laws. Anniceris argued that true pleasures are loyalty, friendship, love, and sincerity, reflecting moral virtues.
• The Cynic School was founded by Antisthenes (c. 435-370 BCE). The term "Cynic" derives from the Greek "κυνός" (kynos, dog), and the Cynics referred to themselves as dogs. Like Aristippus, Antisthenes sought to define the essence of goodness but arrived at different conclusions. He believed that suffering results from unmet desires; if one desires something unattainable, they suffer. Since fulfilling all desires is impossible, the only way to avoid suffering and dependency is to free oneself from desires. A person who desires nothing is independent of the material world, good, and happy. The Cynics led a strict ascetic lifestyle, rejecting all possessions and likening their lives to that of dogs. Diogenes of Sinope (c. 412-323 BCE) epitomized Cynic lifestyle, owning nothing and living in a barrel. The Cynics also sought to reject not only material possessions but also social statuses, overtly disregarding public opinion and using their behavior as a form of protest against societal norms.