History of Philosophy

Ancient Philosophy

Hellenism

Aristotle marked the end of the classical Greek philosophical era. His pupil, Alexander III of Macedon, ushered in a new chapter in human history. When the Greek cities were conquered by the Persians, it was Alexander who led the Greek resistance, liberating the Greek cities and conquering the entire Near East—from the Balkans and Egypt to the northern reaches of India. Alexander was fundamentally different from any military leader before him. Whereas his predecessors aimed to conquer and levy tribute, Alexander envisioned a grander mission. He aspired to create a unified cultural space, where all the inhabitants of his conquered world would belong to a single global culture. He encouraged migration, supported families formed by people of different nations, and promoted cultural exchange. As a result of these efforts, a new culture emerged that synthesized all the ancient cultures of the Near East. This period is known as the Late Antiquity or Hellenism. The term "Hellenism" literally translates as "Greek," but it carries a somewhat different meaning. Hellenism represents a synthesis of Near Eastern cultures based on Greek culture. A distinctive feature of Hellenism was that the Greek language, in its simplified form, became the lingua franca. The philosophy of this era exhibited characteristics that set it apart from the past:

• During the Hellenistic period, political philosophy nearly vanished. Whereas Plato and Aristotle could debate the best form of government in democratic Athens, such discussions became irrelevant in Alexander's empire or the Roman Empire (why discuss state structure when the emperor’s will prevails?), and could even be dangerous (if a philosopher's conclusions diverged from the emperor's beliefs, they could become a target of political repression). The task of politics was to create ideal conditions for achieving happiness. With the decline of political philosophy, thinkers turned their focus to ethics. Thus, one of the central themes of Hellenistic philosophy became ethics.
• Another key theme of the Hellenistic philosophy was the question of truth. Previously, Greeks considered their culture to be ideal and all other cultures as barbaric. After Alexander, Greeks encountered other lands and saw foreign cultures. They realized that other cultures were not less developed than their own. If it had once been clear that only Greek culture and religion were true, this assertion was no longer so evident. The question arose as to which culture was true. Hellenism offered two answers to this question. Some philosophers argued that all cultures contain grains of truth but none embody the whole truth (e.g., Stoics). Such beliefs were also reflected in religion. Others believed that there was no truth, and that any culture was merely a human invention (e.g., Skeptics).