Philosophy of Humanity

Anthropology (Philosophy of Humanity)

The School of Philosophical Anthropology

At the beginning of the 20th century in Germany, a philosophical school emerged, which its adherents named philosophical anthropology. The objective of this school was to study human beings as an independent substance, not within the context of other realities; thus, its focus was on humanity per se, rather than as a member of society, an economic or political agent, a center of psychological activity, or a bearer of language, among other considerations.

• The key figure of philosophical anthropology was the German philosopher and sociologist Max Ferdinand Scheler (1874-1928). In analyzing humanity, Scheler employed a classification of biological and psychological forces of living organisms:
• At the lowest level is the drive for development, which characterizes all living beings, from plants to humans. This drive is entirely unconscious and ensures spontaneous biological processes.
• The next level comprises instincts—unconscious forces that stimulate action. Instincts are present in both animals and humans and help them avoid danger and preserve their lives.
• The third level of vital forces is associative thinking. Scheler used this term to describe the ability to perceive, remember, and recognize. It is characteristic of both humans and animals and enables orientation in the world.
• The fourth level is practical reason. It is inherent in both humans and animals and allows for making choices and achieving practical goals.

All these forces are not unique to humans but reflect only the biological and psychological aspects of human existence. What distinguishes humans is that, in addition to these forces, their essence also includes spirit. Humans are not merely biological beings undergoing organic processes but exist at the intersection of two realities: the organic and the spiritual. Thanks to the presence of spirit, humans are capable of uniting their biological and psychological energies and directing them along the path of the spirit. The fundamental capacity of humans is transcendence—exceeding the bounds of the body and the world. This transcendence is initiated by the spirit, but it cannot be realized without the active involvement of vital forces. For instance, no matter how deeply a musician feels the music, they cannot produce a melody without applying physical effort. Achieving the goals that the spirit strives for, Scheler referred to as a breakthrough. A breakthrough is only possible when the spirit can mobilize natural forces and direct them towards its own transcendental goals. However, it is impossible to unite spirit and vital forces in all aspects.

• Scheler's ideas were continued by the German philosopher Helmuth Plessner (1892-1985). Like Scheler, Plessner sought to highlight the distinction of humans from all other organic life forms, thereby demonstrating human uniqueness. Plessner analyzed the differences among living organisms. Plants are characterized by their complete openness to the external world and continuous interaction with their environment. Animals have a center of existence within themselves but are open to the world through their senses. According to Plessner, the uniqueness of humans lies in their having a center of being like animals, but this center, unlike that of animals, is located outside of them. Humans can contemplate their biological existence from their center without identifying themselves with it.
• The third representative of the school of philosophical anthropology was the German Arnold Karl Franz Gehlen (1904-1976). Gehlen extended the considerations of Scheler and Plessner about the complete distinction of humans from animals and combined these ideas with Johann Gottfried Herder's (1744-1803) theory of the "deficient human." Herder asserted that humans have diminished and reduced their instincts, making them significantly weaker than those of animals. On this basis, Gehlen posed the following question: If humans are entirely different from animals, and this difference lies in the suppression of instincts—those that help animals survive—then what aids human survival? If human instincts are insufficient for survival, humans must have other means of survival. These means are social institutions. They assist people, who have lost their instincts, in surviving in the world.