Philosophy of Humanity

Anthropology (Philosophy of Humanity)

The Modern Era

The Modern Era marks a period of re-evaluation of the philosophical foundations of European worldviews. René Descartes (1596—1650), regarded as the founder of Modern philosophy, posited that all existence is composed of two substances: spirit, which is expressed through consciousness, and body, which is expressed through extension. Human beings are the intersection of these two substances. Although Descartes did not develop a comprehensive theory of humanity, his assertion that spirit is expressed through consciousness had a profound impact. Prior to this, the prevailing philosophical view was Aristotle's notion of the soul as primarily vitality. Since, for Descartes, spirit equates to consciousness, the unconscious aspects of human beings were excluded from the study of human sciences, including psychology. The study of the unconscious did not emerge until the 20th century.

Scholars of the Modern Era approached the study of humanity from new perspectives previously unknown. Humans began to be examined through the lenses of biology, psychology, linguistics, ethnology, economics, and more. English biologist Charles Robert Darwin (1809—1882) formulated the theory of evolution, suggesting that species of living organisms emerged from one another, adapting to their environment and living conditions. In this theory, humanity was perceived as merely one of the many species. Although Darwin's focus was narrow, neglecting the spiritual, moral, social, and rational aspects of human beings, his work greatly advanced the fields of anatomy and physiology.

German scholar Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt (1832—1920) established the first laboratory for experimental psychology at Leipzig University in 1875, marking the beginning of modern psychology. Following Wundt, the study of the human mind became a leading area of scientific inquiry.

The Modern Era also gave rise to materialism, which significantly influenced anthropology. While humanity had previously been viewed as a spiritual and corporeal entity, new philosophers began to describe humans exclusively as corporeal substances, interpreting all spiritual processes as derivative of physical ones. For instance, French Enlightenment thinker Julien Offray de La Mettrie (1709—1751), captivated by mechanics, perceived humans as mere machines, even titling his major work "L'Homme Machine" ("Man a Machine"). German philosopher Ludwig Feuerbach (1804—1872), despite his attempts to draw philosophical attention to humanity, regarded it merely as a collection of chemical elements, aptly summarized by his dictum: "Man is what he eats."

Philosophers who acknowledged the multifaceted nature of humanity also devoted significant attention to it. For example, Immanuel Kant (1724—1804) extensively studied humanity but within the contexts of other philosophical disciplines such as epistemology, ethics, and aesthetics. Similarly, in the philosophy of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, humanity is considered an expression of the Absolute Spirit. This situation shifted at the beginning of the 20th century, when philosophical anthropology emerged as an independent field of philosophical knowledge.