Philosophy of Humanity

Anthropology (Philosophy of Humanity)

Hinduism and Buddhism

The starting point of anthropology is the question of human existence as a distinct essence, namely whether humans truly exist. Throughout human history, two answers have emerged: one asserts that humans do not exist as a unique entity, while the other maintains that humans are a special being that cannot be reduced to other forms of existence. Both concepts of humanity have arisen within two religious traditions. The first answer was provided by the tradition of Ancient India. Hinduism, the dominant religion of the Indian subcontinent, is based on monism, the doctrine that only one divine principle exists, referred to as Brahman. Apart from Brahman, there is nothing else. Everything that humans perceive as distinct substances is merely an expression of Brahman. All deities and spirits, stars and planets, spirit and matter, society and state—everything is simply an expression of Brahman.

If nothing exists apart from Brahman, then humans cannot exist as independent substances. They are merely expressions of Brahman. This implies that humans do not possess an inherent existence: just as a voice or scent is not an independent substance but only an expression of a person, so too is a human not an independent substance but merely an expression of Brahman. If humans do not exist as separate substances, then there is no point in studying them apart from Brahman. This view of humanity leads to the Hindu moral doctrine. Hindu gurus teach that individuals should realize their true essence, which is their identity with Brahman. If a person understands that they are not an independent substance but only a reflection of Brahman, they live by Brahman's values rather than their own. If one starts to believe that they are an independent substance, they create an illusion of self, mistakenly believing in their own existence. This illusion is considered the greatest sin, and Hinduism sets the task of overcoming it for its followers. The illusion of one's own existence generates egoism and passions. If a person believes they are a separate substance, they strive to affirm their identity and highlight their separateness. The illusion of self-existence is a central theme in the works of Hindu theologians and philosophers.

The Hindu religious tradition has developed numerous methods for freeing oneself from the illusion of self-existence. Through meditation, a Hindu monk aims to disconnect their consciousness, which is perceived as a product of false illusion, and merge with the true being of Brahman. The state of complete dissolution in Brahman is called Nirvana by Hindus. Hindu theologians describe Nirvana as a state of absolute nothingness, a complete cessation of individual consciousness and merging with the Absolute. Many Hindus choose monastic life, renouncing the world and themselves, as they perceive the world and self only as illusion.

The doctrine of the illusory nature of humanity is even more pronounced in Buddhism, a religion that originated in India as an offshoot of Hinduism. The founder of Buddhism, Siddhartha Gautama Shakyamuni, more commonly known as the Buddha, asserted that all human life is a continuous suffering. From birth to death, humans suffer, with death being the culmination of human suffering. The goal of Buddha's spiritual quest was to find a way to escape suffering. He claimed that the cause of suffering is desire: people desire things and suffer when they cannot attain them. Therefore, the only way to escape suffering is to be freed from desires. If people seek to possess things but do not have them, their suffering is caused by this longing. Since possessing everything is impossible, the only way to rid oneself of suffering is to rid oneself of desires. If people desire nothing, they will not suffer.

This basic assertion of Buddhism is grounded in Buddhist doctrine, which is somewhat similar to Hinduism but more radical. While Hindus believe that only Brahman exists and everything else is mere illusion, Buddhists deny even the existence of Brahman. Hence, there is nothing. If someone believes they exist, or that something exists around them, it means they are mistakenly perceiving illusion as reality. To obtain what does not actually exist is impossible, and therefore Buddhists see spiritual growth as liberation from illusion. The greatest tragedy for humans is death. People tend to mistakenly believe they exist, even though they are only an illusion. They wish to prolong their lives as long as possible. However, death inevitably arrives, and people die. The awareness of one’s own mortality causes immense suffering. To escape the suffering caused by mortality, one must rid themselves of the illusion of life. If a person realizes that neither they nor anything else exists, they will not cling to what does not exist, and will perceive their death not as a misfortune, but as the cessation of the illusion stream, thus achieving liberation from suffering. Both Hindus and Buddhists view spiritual perfection as attaining Nirvana (dissolution of individuality) and liberation from Samsara (rebirth). However, while for Hindus Nirvana means merging with Brahman, for Buddhists it means entering absolute nothingness. In both cases, it is asserted that the self as an independent substance does not exist.