Philosophy of Humanity

Anthropology (Philosophy of Humanity)

Antiquity

The foundation for the subsequent philosophical anthropology that developed in European philosophy was the Christian understanding of humanity as an independent substance and the highest creation of God, combining a divine fragment with matter. The philosophical discourse surrounding the human condition in European philosophy was profoundly influenced by the achievements of ancient philosophers. Since ancient anthropological theories align closely with the Christian conception of humanity, they enriched the anthropological tradition of European philosophy. Among these, Plato developed the most comprehensive anthropological theory. He posited that everything that exists is an expression of ideas, or eternal pure forms. Thus, the human being, as an entity, was also an expression of the idea of humanity. Originally, humanity existed as an ideal form in the realm of ideas. Since forms are immaterial, humans in the world of ideas lacked a material body and were purely soul. The primary task of humanity in this state was to seek truth. However, having diverted from the contemplation of truth, humanity strayed from the source of its being, became coarse, and acquired a material body, falling into the material world.

Hence, humanity is a soul destined for the pursuit of truth, which has become ensnared in a body that confines it and imposes material and coarse limits. This is why there is a constant internal struggle within humans between higher and lower principles. Plato characterized this struggle through the analysis of the soul's structure. He argued that the human soul consists of three parts: the rational, the spirited, and the appetitive. The rational part of the soul is a spark of divine reason present in humans. It continually urges individuals to act wisely and nobly. The spirited part of the soul is a consequence of the lower, material principle. It constantly drives individuals to acts that demean human dignity. The third part of the soul is the appetitive; it neither initiates behavior nor forms behavioral norms but executes the impulses provided by the other two parts of the soul. For individuals to realize their potential, they must achieve perfection, which Plato termed virtues.

Each part of the soul has its corresponding virtue. The virtue for the rational part is wisdom. For the spirited part, it is temperance. Plato did not advocate a complete renunciation of the demands of the appetitive part (such as food, rest, entertainment), as these are essential for living, but he encouraged placing these demands within strict limits, as excessive indulgence in the appetitive impulses would lead to human degradation. The virtue for the appetitive part is courage. Without courage, a person cannot realize even the best impulses of the soul. Thus, human life is an internal spiritual-moral struggle.

Aristotle, Plato’s student, made a significant contribution to anthropology. Within the framework of metaphysics, he asserted that any substance consists of form and matter, with the essence of the substance determined by its form. For instance, an object is a table if it has the form of a table and can perform the functions of a table, regardless of the material from which it is made. If a person is an independent substance, they too must consist of form and matter. Aristotle identified the body as the matter of a person and the soul as the form. Just as form determines the essence of a substance, so the soul defines the essence of a person. Therefore, the focus of philosophical analysis should be on the human soul.

Aristotle distinguished three components in the human soul: the vegetative, the sensory-motor, and the rational. The vegetative component, according to Aristotle, is present in all living beings (plants, animals, and humans) and ensures the body’s vitality. The sensory-motor function enables sensation and movement, thus being characteristic of animals and humans. The rational function allows for thought and knowledge, and it is unique to humans. Thus, Aristotle established the primary function of the soul as vitality. The soul is, above all, what sustains life in all living beings. The distinct feature of the human soul is its rationality, or its capacity for knowledge and thought.

A significant anthropological issue that Aristotle prompted was the question of the soul’s immortality. In the tradition of Abrahamic religions, as well as in Plato, the human soul is considered immortal. Aristotle, however, did not explicitly clarify this. By leaving the question open, Aristotle provided a basis for future philosophical debate. On one hand, if the soul is the form of the body, it should be immortal, as forms can exist independently of the body. For example, the shape of a square remains unaffected by the disappearance of any square object. The destruction of a substance results only in the separation of form and matter. Similarly, death separates form and matter: form continues to exist outside the body, while matter assumes a new form. This interpretation was embraced by the prominent medieval philosopher and Catholic theologian Thomas Aquinas. On the other hand, if the soul provides vitality to the body, then when a person dies, life ceases. This suggests that the human soul disappears at the moment of the body’s death. This view was supported by the Arab philosopher Averroes and, within the European tradition, by Siger of Brabant and his followers, the Latin Averroists. Nevertheless, Thomas’s position became predominant in European philosophical tradition, as it aligned with Christian doctrine.

After Plato and Aristotle, ancient philosophy did not produce another major anthropological theory. During the Hellenistic period, which began with Alexander’s campaigns and continued during Aristotle’s lifetime, philosophers focused more on ethics than on anthropology, concentrating on how people should behave and the foundations on which to build life rather than on the nature of human existence.