Philosophy of Humanity

Philosophy of Psychology (Psychological Theory)

Behaviorism

At the dawn of the 20th century, experimental psychology gave rise to a school of thought that became one of the dominant paradigms in modern psychological science: behaviorism. The term "behaviorism" derives from the English word "behavior." Behaviorists posed a question about the subject matter of psychology. If psychology is to employ an empirical-experimental method, its subject must be something that can be studied through experience. Only behavior fits this criterion. While a psychologist cannot observe what transpires within the human soul, they can observe how individuals behave and react to various stimuli. Thus, behaviorists proclaimed that the subject of psychology is human behavior, specifically how people respond to stimuli. Behaviorism underwent several stages of development. Originating in the United States, it also spread to Europe.

The founder of behaviorism was John Broadus Watson (1878-1958). In 1913, he delivered his seminal lecture, "Psychology as a Behaviorist Views It," which marked the inception of this school. Whereas early psychological schools generally believed that human behavior was determined by internal psychological processes, and thus Wundt employed the method of experimental introspection, Watson rejected any possibility of studying the inner world of individuals. According to Watson, the subject of research could only be the external manifestations of mental life, namely stimulus and response. Therefore, psychologists should investigate the connection between them.

Watson's ideas were embraced by his student, Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949). Failing to find willing participants for his experiments, Thorndike began conducting them on chicks, but due to the lack of proper laboratories, he set up a makeshift lab in his home's basement. Thorndike's basement became the world’s first laboratory in animal psychology. His experiments involved placing chicks in an environment from which they had to find an escape route. Once successful, they navigated similar situations much faster on subsequent trials. This led Thorndike to formulate the "law of exercise," which posits that repetition aids memorization by strengthening the stimulus-response connection.

Closely related to behaviorism were the studies of the Russian scientist Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine and Physiology in 1904. Pavlov conducted experiments with dogs, presenting them with food while simultaneously introducing a secondary stimulus, such as a bell sound. The dogs learned to associate the sound of the bell with the arrival of food. Pavlov then rang the bell without providing food, and despite the absence of food, the dogs exhibited the same physiological responses as if food were present, including increased saliva and gastric juice secretion. Through this experiment, Pavlov demonstrated the connection between stimulus and response.

Despite its popularity, behaviorism faced significant criticism from its opponents, who deemed the "stimulus-response" model overly simplistic. In response to this critique, a new phase in the development of this school emerged, known as neobehaviorism. The central question for neobehaviorists was the relationship between stimulus and response. Edward Chase Tolman (1886-1959) laid the foundations for neobehaviorism with his theory of cognitive maps. According to Tolman, each organism, upon encountering a stimulus, constructs a mental representation of the situation, which then determines its subsequent response. Tolman studied spatial behavior in both humans and rats, concluding that both build cognitive maps to navigate and find exits in spatial environments. When exposed to the same spatial situation repeatedly, the map is refined. Thus, the mental map acts as an intermediary between stimulus and response.

Another scholar of the neobehaviorist school was Clark Leonard Hull (1884-1952). Like Tolman, Hull sought answers to how stimulus and response are connected. Hull was heavily influenced by Pavlov and his research on reflexes. Building on Pavlov’s findings and numerous experiments of his own, Hull demonstrated that the intermediate link between stimulus and response is habit. People do not merely react to stimuli but do so in ways that ensure their survival in their environment. If a response proves useful, individuals acquire the habit of responding in that particular way. Habits are shaped by needs; people develop habits only if they are necessary.

Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904-1990) developed the theory of operant conditioning, which builds upon the basic tenet of behaviorism that human behavior is a reaction to external factors. Skinner extended this reasoning by asserting that if behavior is a response to stimuli, then stimuli can be used to regulate behavior and accelerate skill acquisition. For example, a child learns to perform a task more quickly if they know they will receive a reward, such as a candy. Similarly, a child will refrain from behaviors if they are associated with punishments. Therefore, external stimuli can be used to shape behavioral patterns.

A new phase in the development of behaviorism was initiated by the Canadian-American psychologist of Ukrainian descent, Albert Bandura (b. 1925), one of the most widely read authors in the humanities. Bandura proposed the theory of social learning. Whereas pre-Bandura behaviorists analyzed the connection between stimulus and response, Bandura significantly broadened the scope of psychological research. He argued that a crucial factor in shaping human behavior is the example set by others. People tend to observe and imitate the behavior of others, especially those they regard as authorities. Bandura conducted the famous Bobo doll experiment, in which infants were divided into two groups; one group observed adults behaving aggressively, while the other saw adults behaving kindly. In another experiment, one group of children watched positive films, while another saw films featuring aggression and cruelty. Subsequently, psychologists observed the children's interactions with a doll. Those who had witnessed kind behavior or positive films treated the doll gently, while those exposed to aggressive behavior or violent films displayed aggression towards the doll. This led to the conclusion that the behavior of those around us serves as a significant stimulus for certain types of behavior. People learn and mimic the behavioral patterns of their environment.