Philosophy of Humanity

Philosophy of Psychology (Psychological Theory)

Humanism and Existentialism

The intensification of interest in the human condition and the development of existential philosophy also impacted the progress of psychology, giving rise to several schools that have formulated distinctive theories of mental processes. Common to these schools is their emphasis on the individual and existential analysis of the inner world, needs, aspirations, paths to self-realization, and individualization.

The first of these schools is humanistic psychology, founded by Abraham Harold Maslow (1908-1970), an American psychologist born to Ukrainian-Jewish immigrants. A key feature of Maslow's psychological concept, which sets him apart from all previous schools, was his focus on healthy individuals. Prior to Maslow, psychologists had primarily studied people with deviations and sought to assist them, while the study of healthy individuals was largely neglected. Maslow shifted the focus to understanding mental processes in healthy individuals, providing psychology with a new developmental trajectory. Mental processes occur in both sick and healthy individuals, but while deviations were studied before Maslow, the principles regulating the psyche of healthy people remained largely unknown.

Maslow asserted that the mental processes of a healthy individual are driven by needs, which shape behavior. People engage in activities to satisfy these needs. Hence, the primary aspect of mental life in a healthy individual is their needs. Maslow concentrated on these needs, analyzing and classifying them, resulting in what is known as Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. He proposed that all essential human needs can be divided into seven levels, arranged from the most basic: 1. Physiological (food, water, air, clothing, shelter); 2. Safety (a sense of security, freedom from fear); 3. Love (participation in a community, a sense of belonging); 4. Esteem (achievement, recognition, approval); 5. Cognitive (intellectual development); 6. Aesthetic (harmony, beauty, order, organization); 7. Self-actualization (realizing goals and revealing talents). Maslow claimed that people satisfy their needs in this order. A hungry person will not visit museums or enjoy beauty; they will first seek food. Only after fulfilling lower needs can one move on to higher ones. Maslow labeled the last three needs as higher needs, with self-actualized individuals being those who have met their higher needs. The degree of mental health, according to Maslow, depends on the extent to which higher psychological needs are fulfilled.

The second psychological school that centered on the healthy individual was existential psychology, founded by American Rollo Reese May (1909-1994). His views were grounded in existential philosophy, which he sought to apply practically. Existentialists claim that human life is absurd, with individuals living in constant fear and disorientation. May’s interests were broad, and he was well-versed in existentialist contributions. Moreover, he endured experiences that left a profound mark on his life: he contracted tuberculosis and underwent prolonged treatment. During his illness, he faced the absurdity of human existence directly but did not succumb. Instead, he focused all his internal strength on recovery. After his recovery, May contended that he was healed not so much by doctors but by his own mental efforts. His existentialism was optimistic, as it drew from the Christian wing of existentialism rather than the atheistic. Besides his psychological interests, May was also a theologian. He received education at a theological seminary and became a Protestant pastor. During his studies, he befriended German Lutheran theologian Paul Tillich, who had migrated to the U.S. during World War II. Tillich introduced May to Christian existentialism. As a Christian existentialist, May argued that the absurdity of human existence traumatizes the psyche, and only those who confront this absurdity can maintain mental health, order, and harmony. Overcoming the absurdity of existence requires religious faith, which gives life meaning. Thus, practicing Christians are less prone to mental pathologies than non-believers.

American Carl Rogers (1902-1987) developed client-centered therapy, which became a popular method in modern psychotherapy. He posited that every person has a self-concept—a complex of self-perceptions, expectations, desires, and attitudes. To understand a person’s behavior, experiences, and aspirations, one must view them through the lens of their self-concept. In other words, understanding a person requires delving into how they perceive themselves, viewing them from the perspective of their self-concept, and exploring their inner world. The requirement to view a person from the perspective of their self-concept led to the term "client-centered therapy," as the psychologist's focus shifts from idealized notions of how one should behave and feel to the real individual and their inner world. Psychological problems arise when the self-concept conflicts with reality, and solving these issues involves adjusting the self-concept. Rogers demonstrated the crucial importance of the self-concept—that is, what a person thinks of themselves—for all aspects of their life.

A further concept in humanistic psychology was introduced by Austrian psychologist Viktor Emil Frankl (1905-1997). During World War II, Frankl was imprisoned in a Nazi concentration camp but survived, and after his release, he dedicated significant efforts to understanding his experiences. Frankl was particularly interested in the issue of suicides. He observed that often successful people, who appeared to have no problems and whose lives seemed happy, would commit suicide. Frankl questioned how a young student, performing well in a prestigious university, with a promising career, from a wealthy family, and good health, could commit suicide while he, enduring torture and humiliation in the concentration camp, did not. At first glance, a concentration camp prisoner seems to have more grounds for a psychological crisis than a successful student, but, in reality, suicide rates among those with ostensibly perfect lives are not lower than among those in difficult life situations.

Frankl concluded that the issue was not external factors but internal experiences. A person lives and wishes to live when they see meaning in their life, and their life ends when they no longer perceive such meaning. Frankl, while in the concentration camp, dreamed of leaving it because he had a purpose for living outside the camp. Despite the harsh conditions, he saw meaning in his life, understood why life was worth living, and acknowledged that life was worth living. When he was in the camp, he recognized that his life was far from how he would like it to be, but there was still a reason to work towards it. In contrast, the successful student has everything that others strive for. Their successful career, affluent life, and societal respect seem predetermined, requiring no extraordinary effort to achieve. In such circumstances, life loses its meaning.

The extreme form of meaning loss is suicide. However, many people without suicidal tendencies express their loss of meaning through other psychological or antisocial behaviors, such as alcoholism, depression, neuroses, and so on. Frankl assessed all these issues from the perspective of meaning loss. As a psychotherapist, he developed a treatment method called logotherapy, or therapy through the restoration of life's meaning. A person can regain mental and social health, avoid suicide or antisocial behaviors, if they perceive a sense of their life, that is, if they internally believe that life is worth living.