Philosophy of Humanity

Philosophy of Education

The Emergence of Pedagogy

The development of pedagogy as a distinct science was significantly advanced by the work of the eminent Czech educator John Amos Comenius (1592-1670), a Hussite bishop who is chiefly remembered for his educational ideas. Comenius argued that education should be grounded on three pillars: intellectual, moral, and religious upbringing. He believed that education and upbringing should reflect the nature of the pupil and assist them in realizing their inherent talents. For effective teaching, Comenius sought to systematize and organize schooling more clearly. Previously, children and youth of various ages could attend the same class, leading to a mix of age groups within a single class. Comenius implemented a clear division of students by age categories, as he believed that teaching must account for developmental and psychological differences: six-year-olds should be taught differently than fifteen-year-olds. He also aimed to systematize curricula according to educational stages, dividing the years of study into quarters. Teachers were to consider each student's unique attributes, and Comenius proposed categorizing students based on their learning abilities. He distinguished types of students such as those with sharp minds eager to learn, those with sharp minds but slow and obedient, those sharp yet stubborn and restless, obedient but slow and listless, dull and indifferent, and dull and resentful. Each group required a distinct approach. Comenius championed the use of visual aids in education, asserting that students should see what they learn, rather than merely hearing or reading about it. This led to textbooks being filled with illustrations and classrooms with visual materials. Regular weekly and monthly assessments, as well as end-of-year exams, were established to monitor knowledge and student performance.

Enlightenment philosophers argued that universal happiness could be achieved through universal education. People are impoverished because they cannot organize their economic activities, ill due to improper living habits, and politically oppressed due to their inability to fight for their rights. Teaching them would lead to universal happiness. This was somewhat of a utopian project, as Enlightenment thinkers did not question whether everyone desired to learn. Nonetheless, Enlightenment ideas had significant repercussions. Enlightenment thinkers aimed to provide education for all, advocating for compulsory and free basic education, contemplating the most effective educational and developmental systems, and so forth. Thus, pedagogy held significant importance within Enlightenment philosophy.

French Enlightenment thinker Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) authored numerous works, including "Emile, or On Education." Rousseau believed that humans are inherently good and were so as long as they lived in nature. Civilization, he argued, has corrupted mankind. Once humanity embarked on the path of civilization, there was no turning back. However, despite the irreversible nature of history, people should strive to bring their way of life as close to the natural state as possible. The aspiration for natural upbringing is central to Rousseau’s pedagogy.

Rousseau’s educational ideas were populist and unrealistic. Moreover, he did not implement in his own life what he wrote about: he taught others how to raise children but sent his own to an orphanage. In contrast, the educational system of English Enlightenment thinker John Locke (1632-1704) was different. Locke clearly distinguished between education and upbringing: education fosters intellectual growth, while upbringing shapes character. These two factors should be combined in the educational system. Locke detailed and justified the methods teachers should use, the subjects students should study, and areas requiring special attention. Locke’s educational system aimed to cultivate the ideal English gentleman. The image of the cultured individual, symbolic of England, was made possible through Locke’s pedagogy. After Comenius and the Enlightenment, pedagogy continued to develop vigorously. Pedagogical classics primarily worked practically, creating schools, managing educational processes, and documenting their experiences in their writings. Pedagogical classics amassed a rich body of experience and passed it on to future generations.

Swiss educator Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827) was one of the most prominent educators of his time. He believed that the root of societal suffering lay in the low level of education, thus the greatest assistance to people was promoting their education. He dreamed of a universal school where everyone would have access to basic education. Education should be combined with upbringing, and the best means of upbringing is labor. Pestalozzi was the most active proponent of labor education, stressing that children's work should only assist in their learning and development and should never turn into exploitation. According to him, intellect, morality, and physical aptitudes have the capacity for self-development. Education should guide these self-developmental forces correctly and assist children’s growth. Education must be based on the nature of the child, reflecting their natural talents and fostering their development. Learning should progress from the simpler to the more complex, from the partial to the whole. An important idea for Pestalozzi was that school cannot be the exclusive educational environment. Children are educated simultaneously in all their environments. Hence, family and religion play a crucial role in upbringing. If the school disregards family and religion in education, its efforts will be in vain. The goal of education is the development of morality and personal culture.

Pestalozzi’s successor, Friedrich Adolf Wilhelm Diesterweg (1790-1866), asserted that education should be based on three methodological principles: natural appropriateness (considering the child's natural attributes, age, psychological traits, etc.), cultural appropriateness (accounting for the child’s socio-cultural conditions), and self-activity (developing individual creative potentials). German educator Johann Friedrich Herbart (1776-1841) emphasized that education should integrate six interests: empirical (gathering experience), speculative (interpreting data), aesthetic (sensing beauty), sympathetic (relating to loved ones), social (relating to all people), and religious (seeking spiritual improvement). Each lesson should encompass expressiveness, association, system, and method. German educator Friedrich Wilhelm Froebel (1782-1852) is remembered for creating the first preschool institution. He believed that children not yet of school age should develop in natural conditions suited to them, namely, play. They can only learn within the context of play. To realize this plan, he established a preschool institution called "Kindergarten" (children's garden), believing that children in such an institution would grow like plants in a paradise garden, with the educator acting as a gardener. Froebel’s idea of kindergartens was adopted and developed by many educators. Italian educator Maria Montessori (1870-1952) developed a system of free education and upbringing for children. She believed that children should receive the maximum freedom during upbringing. Polish-Jewish educator Henrik Goldschmidt, writing under the name Janusz Korczak (1878-1942), directed an orphanage and was the first to advocate for children's rights, the need to seriously address their needs and desires, and respect for the child.

Pedagogical thought also actively developed in Ukraine. The father of Ukrainian pedagogy was Konstantin Ushinsky (1824-1870), who made significant efforts to advance public schooling. He believed that there is no single model of school education for all peoples. Since each nation has its own cultural peculiarities, schools should account for them. School education should be based on national culture, literature, and art, fostering patriotism and love for one’s cultural traditions. The development of the Ukrainian school, based on national traditions, is largely attributed to Ukrainian educators like Kristina Alchevskaya (1841-1920), Boris Grinchenko (1863-1910), and Grigoriy Vashchenko (1878-1967). During the Soviet period, Ukrainian pedagogy was represented by Anton Makarenko (1888-1939) and Vasily Sukhomlinsky (1918-1970). Modern Ukrainian pedagogical thought is actively developing. In 1992, the National Academy of Pedagogical Sciences of Ukraine was established, bringing together the best specialists in the field. Numerous pedagogical universities continue the tradition of domestic pedagogy.

In the mid-20th century, education researchers undertook a grand project to create an integrated science of education that would unify the achievements of all research fields studying education. This science was named educationalology. In Ukraine, educationalology owes its development to Ukrainian scholar Viktor Ohnev’yuk (born 1959).